"The Closed World is astonishing. One of the most important books of the 20th century."
-- Howard Rheingold, editor, Whole Earth Review

"A fascinating glimpse into the history of computing and a cogent reminder of the extent to which this history continues to inform our vision of the future."
-- Grant Kester, The Nation

The Closed World offers a radically new alternative to the canonical histories of computers and cognitive science. Integrating political, cultural, and technological history, it argues that we can make sense of computers as tools only when we simultaneously grasp their roles as metaphors and political icons.

In this extended exploration of the relations of science and engineering to the evolution of modern society, Paul Edwards argues that what people have said, thought, and experienced through computers -- as reflections of the nature of their minds; as solutions to political, commercial, and military problems; as icons of rationality -- is as significant as anything computers have actually accomplished. Social and cultural context has shaped the growth of computer technology as much as it has been shaped by it.