|
A
Abulia, 568, 573
Acetylcholine, 1140
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), laminar shifts in, 34
Across-stimulus generalization, in auditory training, 357–358
Across-task generalization, in auditory training, 355–357
Actin polymerization, 146–147
Action
in intention understanding, 635–636
in learning and learning transfer, 160–161
object concepts in support of, 1032–1035
Action-based choice, 1081
Action planning
central nervous system and, 541–543, 547
hierarchical nature of, 642–644
motor primitives in, 541–543
Action semantics, 648–650
Actions
fear, neural basis of, 914–918
nature of, 906
in Pavlovian conditioning, 906–909, 914–918
Actual code, 420, 432
Actual decoder, 420, 432
Actual encoder, 420
Ad auctions, 1250–1251
Adaptation
aftereffects in face recognition, 468
defined, 436–437
eye movements and, 517–518
fMRI, 715
Adaptive control, basal ganglia function and, 375–377
Adolescence
cognitive development in, 73–82
cognitive control, 73, 76–77
current and future directions for research, 81–82
fluid reasoning, 77–81
structural brain development, 73–74
working memory development, 73, 74–76
stress and, 893
Adoption studies, language impairment, 856
Adulthood, stress and, 893
Affective theory, 1093–1094
Afference, posterior parietal cortex (PPC) and, 600–601
Aggression, violent video games and, 155
Aging process
aerobic exercise and cognitive processes, 157
Alzheimer's disease, 147, 270, 1009–1010, 1237
episodic memory deficits, 753
relational reasoning and, 1008–1011
Agnosia, 792
Agrammatic aphasia, 808
Agraphia, 799
Akaike information criterion (AIC), 378, 379
Akakievitch, Akakhi, 310
Alexia, 260, 794, 799
Alexithymia, 979
Alhazen, 511, 514
Allelic variation, 89–90
Altered states of consciousness, 1139
Alzheimer's disease, 147, 270, 1009–1010, 1237
American Association of Anatomists, 9
American Sign Language (ASL), 169–170
Amnesia
in blocking reconsolidation, 694–695
cue-induced, 693–694
experimental, 696–697
future-event simulation and, 752–754
HM (patient), 656, 659, 675
learning rewarding nature of sensory states, 592–593
medial temporal lobe function
habit learning studies, 679–680
retrograde amnesia, 684–685
working memory studies, 678–679
recovery from, 696–697
source, 1118
time-dependent behavioral impairment, 694–695
AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole proprionate) receptors
in fear reaction, 912
synaptic plasticity and, 111–113, 118–119
AMPAR endocytosis, 101
Amygdala
context effects and, 935–942
context conditioning, 939–940
experimental context, 941–942
facial expression, 935–939
fMRI activation to specific stimuli, 936–937, 941–942
and domain-specific neural circuitry, 1036–1038
in emotion regulation, 966
nonconscious processing of emotion, 1186
social cognition, 1185
in fear response, 1095–1096
conditioned fear actions, 914–918
conditioned fear reactions, 891–896, 911–913, 930
infant, 891–896
parallel processing, 913–914
memory for visual details of emotional stimuli, 726–727
modulation of hippocampal consolidation, 729–730
moral judgment and, 988, 989–990
organization of, 909–911
overview, 1095–1097
in processing emotional information, 928–929, 931, 932
fMRI activation to specific stimuli, 936–937, 941, 942
imaging genetics studies, 947–948
in retrieval of emotional memories, 731–733
in self-regulation, 957
in threat detection, 958
valuation in decision making, 1097
Analogical reasoning, 78, 79, 1008, 1010, 1012–1013
Anger, facial expression and amygdala response, 935
Animal studies. See Birds; Cats; Comparative approach; Ferrets; Fish; Frogs; Monkeys; Neural populations in primate cortex; Rodents
Anisomycin, 698
Anisotropy, 1127–1128
Anomia, 260
Anoxia, 1128–1130
Anterior area (AI), empathy and, 975–982
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
in conditioned fear reactions, 917, 918
conflict-control model, 252–257
in decision making, 1023–1027
in emotion regulation, 963, 964, 965–970
empathy and, 975–981
moral judgment and, 988–991, 992, 993–994
regulation of control, 709
reward/value signals in limbic system, 228
in threat detection, 957–958
Anterior inferior parietal area (AIP), mirror neuron system and, 626–633, 634–635
Anterior intraparietal sulcus (aIPS), goal representation and, 644–645, 647
Anterior olfactory nucleus, 326
Anterior rostral MFC, 1026–1027
Anterior temporal lobes (ATL), in semantic cognition, 1061–1064
Anterograde alteration, of synaptic plasticity, 114–116
Anticipation, 962
anticipatory signals, 219–223
movement intention and, 599–601
Antidepictive theories, 1243
Antisocial personality disorder (APD), moral judgment and, 988
Aphasia, 148, 259–260, 1033, 1236
double dissociation in processing, 767–768, 780, 781
following stroke, 259–260, 810
morphological deficits in, 779, 780
phonological processing in, 767–768
semantic, 1063–1064
syntactic deficits and, 808–813
Apoptosis (programmed cell death), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 16
Apperceptive agnosia, 792
Appetitive conditioning research, 914
Apraxia, 599, 648–649
conceptual, 649
ideomotor, 649
Aquatic cetaceans, in evolutionary biology, 52
Arcuate fasciculus (AF), connectivity studies, 57–58, 261–262, 263
Areal domain, neocortical development, 7, 18–19
Aristotelian philosophy, 49
Aristotle, 1116
Arousal
in learning and learning transfer, 161
states of consciousness and, 1139–1140
Artificial grammar learning, 880
Asperger syndrome, empathy and, 979
ASPM (abnormal spindlelike microcephaly associated), 59
Assessment. See names of specific assessment instruments
Assimilation, in color vision, 387–388
Association studies
basal ganglia function and, 576
nature of, 856
Associativity
in conceptual representations, 1032
in memory formation, 113–114, 119, 121–122
in valuation process, 1087
Asynchrony detection, in relative-learning tasks, 359
Ataxia, 603
Athletic domain
aging process and, 157
complex learning environments, 156–158
experience-dependent learning, 155, 157
Atonia, 1139
Attachment, infant
fear learning and, 891–896
maternal separation/deprivation in, 895
nature of, 889–890
neonatal handling, 895–896
neural circuitry and, 890–891
odor learning in, 889–890
rearing environment alteration, 895
Attention. See also Cognitive (executive) control; Selective attention; Visual attention
attention training for children, 173–175, 176
attentional control processes, 185–186, 251–252
basal ganglia function and, 573–575
behavioral phenomena of, 189–200
attentional bottleneck, 282–283
consciousness as, 199–200
control of attention, 198–199
feature binding, 197–198, 274–276
focused versus distributed attention, 199
limits on attention, 189–191
in perceptual processing, 926–928
selection process, 191–193
timing, 193–197
consciousness versus, 199–200, 1141–1143
control of, 186, 198–199
integrating with conflict detection, 251–257
Sylvian fissure, 186, 263–264
defining, 185, 219
effect of emotion on allocation of, 726–727
emotion and, 925–932
automaticity, 929–931
behavioral effects on perception, 926–928
cultural factors, 931–932
current behavior goals, 932
neural circuits underlying attention, 928–929
neural processing in perception, 925–926
personality factors, 931–932
event-related potentials (ERPs) in, 170, 176, 186, 193, 196–197, 199, 254–255
feedback in visual, 1165–1175
focused versus distributed, 199
Hillyard principle, 170
limits of, 189–191
behavioral coherence, 191
disappearance of, 191
general resources, 190
structural interference, 189–190
method of selection, 192–193
changes of tuning or selectivity, 193
facilitation, 192–193
inhibition, 193
microcircuitry of, 186
orientation of spatial, 795–796
plasticity in development of, 170–173
priming and, 196, 197, 199
stages of, 193–197
attentional blink, 196, 197, 199, 1153, 1209
early versus late, 193–197
explicit processing and, 196, 197
implicit processing and, 195–197
psychological refractory period, 194, 195
reverse hierarchy theory (Hochstein and Ahissar), 194
top-down control signals, 186–187, 211–212, 213–214, 220
video games and, 157
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 82, 147, 176, 865
basal ganglia function and, 568, 574
Attention Network Test (ANT), 192
Attentional blink, 196, 197, 199, 1153, 1209
Attentional bottleneck, 282–283
Attentional control signals. See also Cognitive (executive) control
conflict and, 252–253
nature of, 251
Attentional dyslexia, 797
Attentional load theory, 206–207
Attentional processing, in selective attention, 293–298
feature-selective modulation of rhythmic synchronization, 297–298
gamma-band synchronization, 293–295
inter-areal synchronization, 298–299
preparatory attentional states, 295
temporal expectancies of target processing, 296–297
Attractive bias, 531
Attractor networks, 121–123
Auditory cortex
neuroplasticity in, 147, 167–169
in perceptual learning, 132–133, 353–363
peripheral auditory attention, 170–171
rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 95–98, 131, 166–167
visual deprivation and auditory development, 167–169, 321
Auditory filter, 345
Auditory masking, 343–351
energetic, 344–345, 349, 351
informational, 345–351
described, 345–348
simultaneous multitone maskers and, 345–348
speech recognition process, 348–351
perceptual, 348–349
simultaneous multitone maskers, 345–348
Auditory-motor integration networks, verbal working memory in, 771
Auditory pathway, rewiring vision into, 95–98, 131, 166–167
Auditory processing, 132–133, 353–363
characteristics of, 358–362
across-task generalization, 355–357
learning on trained condition, 354–355
in fear conditioning, 913
neural processes in
described, 353–358
neural underpinnings of perceptual learning, 362–363
object analysis, 367–380
concept of auditory object, 367–368
fMRI studies in, 371–379
manipulation of natural stimuli, 368–370
natural stimuli, 368–370
stimuli based on sequence of objects, 370–371
synthetic stimuli for, 370
Autism, 147, 166
empathy and, 979
motor cognition and, 636–638
phenomenal consciousness in, 1118
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), early language acquisition, 845–847, 848
Autobiographical memory, 684–686, 726, 731, 753
Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI), 686, 687, 753
Automaticity, of emotional processing, 929–932
Autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP), 388–389
Avians. See Birds
Avoidance conditioning, 116, 907–909
Awareness. See also Consciousness
declarative memory and, 686–687
detecting, following brain injury, 1125–1127
self-awareness, 954–955
visual. See Visual awareness
Axel, Richard, 324–325
B
Back-propagation of error, 1050
Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES), 978–979
Balint's syndrome
characteristics of, 269, 270–273, 798
following stroke, 198
loss of feature-based attention, 271–272
loss of object-based attention, 270–271
Bartlett, Frederic, 751
Basal ganglia
in cognition, 565–579
anatomical perspectives, 565–568
chunking of action repertoires, 577–579
clinical perspectives, 568
hypotheses of function, 568–577
functions, 553–554, 568–577, 709
pathology of, 560–561
virus tracing studies, 553–561
Baseball, experience-based learning in, 155, 157
Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), 30
Basketball, complex learning environments, 156–157
Basolateral complex (BLA), in fear learning/conditioning, 911, 913, 915–917, 919
Basolateral nuclei, 911
Basomedial nuclei, 911
Bayesian information criterion (BIC), 378, 379, 380
Bayesian statistics, 396–406
basic ideas, 396–397
color constancy and, 398–401
cone mosaic and, 401–404
empirical estimation, 529
ideal Bayesian observer, 420–421, 530
inference and, 159
duality with optimal control, 614–622
linear estimator, 528
maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimator, 528–529, 532
models in, 397–398, 404–406
optimal estimation and, 527–529
perceptual Bayesianism, 530–531
quadratic error (least squares) solution, 527–528
unsupervised regression, 529
Behavioral measures
of attention, 189–200
attentional bottleneck, 282–283
consciousness as, 199–200
control of attention, 198–199
feature binding, 197–198, 274–276
focused versus distributed attention, 199
limits on attention, 189–191
selection process, 191–193
timing, 193–197
of facial recognition, 467–470, 473–474, 477–478
in goal-directed choice
multiple behavioral controllers, 1078–1079
simple binary stimulus, 1076–1077, 1079–1081
of multisensory integration, 505–506
Belief networks, 614–621
Belief propagation, 621
Bellman equation, 617
Bereitschaftspotential (BP), spontaneous motor initiation, 1191
Beta-band synchronization, 298–299
Biased competition theory, 198–199, 705–706
Bibliometric studies, 1221–1222
Bilingualism, infant, 848–849
Bimanual movements, goal representation in, 645–647
Binocular correlation, in depth perception, 489–490
Binocular disparity, in depth perception, 483, 484–489
Binocular rivalry, 1143, 1156, 1170–1176, 1209
Biolinguistics, 875–876
Biological theory of consciousness
described, 1112–1113
explanatory gap and, 1114
self in, 1118–1119
Birds
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 8
mechanisms underlying vocal learning, 878–879
Blind spots, filling-in, 436–437
Blindness
attention and, 170–171
consciousness as requirement for exclusion, 1194–1195
inattentional, 195–196
metacognitive masking and, 1198, 1199
nonconscious processing of emotion, 1186
sensory substitution and, 167–169, 321
visual area involvement in nonvisual tasks, 168–169
Bliss, Tim, 109–111
Blue cone monochromacy, 390
BOLD fMRI. See under Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Bottom-up influences, in selective attention, 212–214
attentional processing, 298–299
relation to top-down influences, 213–214
scene segmentation, 212–213
visual salience, 212
Boulder Committee model, 10, 11, 12
Bound functional morphemes (inflections), 777
Boundary processing
in controlling spread, 439–441
in object recognition process, 455–460, 463–464
in surface perception, 436–437, 439–441, 442–443
Brachium of the IC (BIC), 95
Bradykinesia, 571, 573
Bradyphrenia, 573
Brain damage. See also Lesion studies; Stroke
moral judgment and, 987–988
parahippocampal region, 659–660
recovery of consciousness after brain injury, 1123–1134
central thalamic deep-brain stimulation, 1131–1134
circuit mechanisms underlying forebrain function, 1128–1130
detecting awareness in absence of behavioral responsiveness, 1125–1127
disorders of consciousness overview, 1124–1125
functional recovery and white matter structural changes, 1127–1128
future directions, 1133–1134
striatal, 593–594
virtual, 1005
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), 100, 145, 146–147
Brain specialization, 53–61
comparative genomics, 58–61
comparative histology, 54–55
comparative neuroimaging, 55–58
Brain surgery, plasticity as opportunity for intervention, 148
Brain volume, 746
BrdU, as marker for DNA synthesis, 8
Broadbent, W. H., 1032–1033
Broadly congruent, 629
Broca, Paul, 1235
Broca's area
aphasia and, 741, 773, 808, 809, 811, 1236, 1237
comparative neuroimaging, 57
connectivity studies, 261
in early language acquisition, 847–848
in human brain specialization, 53
morphological processing and, 782
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 39
in semantic unification network, 831
Brodmann's area, 1021, 1236
Buck, Linda, 324–325
Burst neurons, 1089–1090
Bush, George H. W., 1260
C
Cajal-Retzius cells, 33, 37, 42
Calbindin, in human brain specialization, 55, 56
Calcium
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14
in long-term potentiation (LTP) process, 146
in postsynaptic terminal, 111, 112
Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII), 116
Calretinin, in comparative histology, 54
Cancer, 858
Capacity for culture, 875
Caring, moral judgment and, 988–989
Cascade model, 1021–1023
described, 1021–1022
Caspases, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 16
Cat-301, 55, 56
Cats
sensory substitution in, 321
visual cortex
formation of eye-specific inputs, 68
temporal code in perceptual learning, 136
Caud, caudate nucleus, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31
Causal manipulation, in depth perception, 492–493
Cell divisions, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 17
Cellular (synaptic) consolidation, 692
Central and anterior IT (CIT/AIT) neural tuning, 461–465
Central nervous system (CNS)
mechanical basis for compositionality, 547–548
planning and, 541–543, 547
Central pattern generators (CPGs), 545–546
Centrosome, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14
Cerebellum
functions, 553–554
in motor learning and control
construction of internal models, 592
predicting sensory consequences of motor commands, 591–592
pathology of, 560–561, 592
virus tracing studies, 553–561
Cerebral cortex
cross-species size comparisons, 15–17
development of, 314–316
first appearance, 315–316
hierarchical function, 314–316
symmetry and, 316–317
virus tracing studies, 559
Cetaceans
comparative histology, 55
in evolutionary biology, 52
Childhood. See also Developmental stages
attention training in, 173–175
attentional modulation in, 171
autism in, 147, 166, 636–638, 979, 1118
cognitive development in, 73–82
cognitive control, 73, 76–77
current and future directions for research, 81–82
fluid reasoning, 77–81
structural brain development, 73–74
working memory development, 73, 74–76
differential development and, 1048
early childhood stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 41–44
early language acquisition, 837–851
infant lexicon, 843–844
neuroscience-based measures, 837–839
phonetic learning, 839–841
second-language learning, 842
sentence processing, 844–845
word learning, 842–843
face recognition in, 473–478
phenomenal consciousness during, 1117–1118
relational reasoning during, 1005
Chimpanzees. See Monkeys
Choice. See Consciousness, volition and function of; Decision making; Goal-directed choice
Choice probabilities (CP), in depth perception, 490–492
Chomsky, Noam, 806, 807–808, 837, 855
Chondroitin-sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), in ocular dominance plasticity, 101
Chorea, 572
Chronic neuropathic pain syndromes, 147
Chunking, basal ganglia function and, 577–579
Cinematographic vision, 1145
Class I major histocompatibility complex (Class I MHC), 147
Closed loop control, 615–617
CNTNAP2, 862, 863–864
Coarse depth discrimination, 489–493
Cognitive (executive) control
basal ganglia in, 567
conflict and, 252–257
in decision making, 1021
defined, 705
development of, 76–77, 82, 705–709, 714–719, 1019–1027
in emotion regulation, 969
functions within, 76
memory and, 705–720
interactions, 709–714
mnemonic prediction, 714–719
mnemonic suppression, 714–719
prefrontal cortex in, 76–77, 82, 705–709, 714–719
theoretical basis, 705–709
nature of, 73
reliance on, 1247
types, 1021
Cognitive evolution. See Evolutionary biology
Cognitive function
activations in, 1067–1068
assumptions of pure insertion, 1067–1068
basal ganglia in, 565–579
anatomical perspectives, 565–568
chunking of action repertoires, 577–579
clinical perspectives, 568
hypotheses of function, 568–577
cost of intrinsic activity, 1068–1070
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7–8, 20, 22–23
current and future directions for research, 81–82
fluid reasoning development, 77–81
in human brain specialization, 53–61
imagery debate, 1241–1245
levels of
algorithmic, 807–810
neural, 810–813
representational, 805–807
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–44
organization of intrinsic activity, 1070–1071
specificity of learning, 154, 156
stages of, 29–44
structural brain development, 73–74
theory of cognition, 1241–1243
competence versus processing, 1241–1243
relevance of the brain, 1243–1244
working memory development, 74–76, 82
Cognitive neuroscience
ethics and, 1260
imagery debate, 1241–1245
landscape of, 1255–1261
integrating, 1258–1259
methodology, 1255–1256
society and, 1259–1261
theory, 1256–1258
of language, 1235–1239
mapping, 1221–1234
bibliometric studies, 1221–1222
journal citation maps, 1222–1230
topic maps, 1230–1233
origins of, 1221, 1248, 1255
purpose of, 1247
as term, 1221
Cognitive perspective taking. See Empathy
Color blindness, 389–390
Color vision, 383–392
Bayesian approaches to, 396–406
basic ideas, 396–397
color constancy and, 399–401
cone mosaic and, 401–404
models in, 397–398, 404–406
color constancy, 398–401
deficient, 388–392
blue cone monochromacy, 390
red/green deficiency, 389–390
rod monochromacy, 390–392
tritanopia, 388–389
fundamentals of, 395
normal, 383–388
L cone mosaic, 386–388
M cone mosaic, 386–388
S cone mosaic, 384–386
object concepts and, 1034–1035
visual plasticity and, 166, 167
Coma, 1124
Communication. See also Language processing
attention and stages of, 193–197
Comparative approach
differentiation level in, 52–53
to human brain specialization
comparative genomics, 58–61
comparative histology, 54–55
comparative neuroimaging, 55–58
model-animal approach versus, 52–53
nature of, 856–857
to neocortical development, 7–23
cognitive processing, 7–8, 20, 22–23
cortical architecture, 7
cortical size determinants, 15–17
neuronal cell migration, 10–14
onset of neurogenesis, 8
origins of cortical neurons, 8–9
protomap hypothesis, 18–19
radial unit hypothesis, 14–15
span of neurogenesis, 8
stages of cortical development in humans, 20–22
synaptic connections, 7, 19–20
transient embryonic zones, 9–10
to parahippocampal region
boundaries and nomenclature, 660–662
connectivity in, 662–669
damage, 659–660
defined, 660
entorhinal cortex, 659–660, 661, 662, 667–671
monkeys versus rats, 659–671
parahippocampal cortex, 659, 661, 665–666
perirhinal cortex, 659, 660–665
postrhinal cortex, 663, 666–667, 670
Competence, processing versus, 1241–1242
Competition
control pathways in basal ganglia, 569–573
in memory tasks, interference, 76, 710–719
in selective attention, 186
biased competition theory, 198–199, 705–706
bottom-up influences on, 212–214
neural basis of competition, 210–211
observing sensory biases, 219–223
top-down influences on, 211–212, 213–214
Complex genetic diseases, 858
Complex learning environments, 156–158
Complexes, in integrated information theory (IIT), 1205, 1207
Composite effect, in face recognition, 468
Compositionality, motor system, 543, 547–548
Concentration, 185. See also Attention
nature of, 185
Concepts
conceptual dualism, 1115
defined, 1115
Conceptual priming, 715–719
Conceptual representation, 1031–1042
neural foundations, 1032–1042
acting, 1032–1035
anterior regions of temporal lobe, 1040–1041
domain-specific neural circuitry, 1035–1041
feeling, 1032–1035
perceiving, 1032–1035
visual processing, 1032
object maps and, 1031–1032
property information, 1035–1038
Conceptual self, 954
Conditioned motivation, 909, 915–918
Conditioned response (CR)
conditioned fear reactions, 891–896, 911–918
parallel processing, 913–914
serial processing, 911–913, 914
in context conditioning, 939–940
in decision making, 1095–1096
nature of, 906–909
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
in context conditioning, 939–940
in decision making, 1095–1096
nature of, 906–909
Configuration space, 542–543
Conflict
attentional control systems and, 252–253
brain networks for cognitive processing, 253–255
cognitive control and, 252–257
Conflict adaptation, 1024–1025
Connectionism, 158–159
Connectivity
anatomical basis for, 437–438
anticipatory signals
defined, 219–223
dorsal frontoparietal attention network, 219–223
for spatial attention, 222–223
auditory object analysis, 375–379
cascade model and, 1023
functional connectivity
defined, 219–223
dorsal frontoparietal attention network, 219–223
by fMRI, 221
importance of, 1252
neuroimaging studies of, 55–58
in parahippocampal region, 662–669
perisylvian white matter, 260–262
statistical connectivity theory, 411–415
cortical maps, 413–414
described, 411–413
testing, 414–415
surface perception and, 437–438
Consciousness. See also Awareness
attention versus, 199–200, 1142–1143. See also Attention; Visual attention
coma, 1124
defined, 1137, 1181
development of, 316
emotion and, 1181–1188
conscious experience of emotion, 1181–1185
nonconscious processing of emotion, 1185–1188
in evolutionary biology, 1138–1139
locked-in state (LIS), 1124–1125
minimally conscious state (MCS), 1123, 1124, 1125–1127, 1130–1134, 1139
nature of, 752, 1137
neurobiology of, 1137–1147
arousal and states of, 1139–1140
attention versus, 1142–1143
forward versus feedback projections, 1145–1146
free will and, 1138
interaction versus, 1141
neuronal basis of perceptual illusions, 1143–1145
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 41
neuronal correlates, 1140–1141
neuronal correlation of consciousness (NCC), 1140–1141, 1143–1145, 1172–1176
in other species, 1138–1139
quantum mechanics and, 1141
self-consciousness versus, 1141–1142
phenomena included in, 1137–1138
recovery after brain injury, 1123–1134
central thalamic deep-brain stimulation, 1131–1134
circuit mechanisms underlying forebrain function, 1128–1130
detecting awareness in absence of behavioral responsiveness, 1125–1127
disorders of consciousness overview, 1124–1125
functional recovery and white matter structural changes, 1127–1128
future directions, 1133–1134
separation of cognition and, 1112
specificity of, 1209–1212
theories of, 1111–1120, 1201–1216
biological, 1112–1113, 1114, 1118–1119
consciousness-of, 1115–1116, 1182
determining quality of consciousness, 1209–1217
determining quantity of consciousness, 1201–1209, 1210–1211
dualism and, 1114–1115
explanatory gap and, 113–1115
global workspace, 1111–1112, 1113, 1114, 1119
higher order thought (HOT), 1111, 1113, 1114, 1115–1118, 1119
machine consciousness and, 1119–1120
nature of concept, 1115
self and, 1118–1119
vegetative state (VS), 1124
visual awareness, 1151–1161
brain activity and, 1152
causal factors and pathologies of vision, 1158–1159
characterizing unconscious homunculus, 1152–1154
empirical ad theoretical integration, 1159–1160
impact of, 1155–1158
measuring, 1151–1152
unconscious vision and multivariate pattern analysis, 1154–1155
volition and function of, 1191–1199
conscious veto, 1193–1194
exclusion, 1194–1195
inhibition, 1194–1195
spontaneous motor initiation, 1191–1193
top-down cognitive control, 1195–1197
true function of consciousness, 1197–1199
Consciousness-of, nature of, 1115–1116, 1182
Consolidation theory, 692–693. See also Reconsolidation
memory and
emotional effects on hippocampus, 729–730
sleep deprivation, 730–731
Constructive memory, 751–759
core network in, 754–756, 757–759
future event simulation, 752–754, 757–759
imagining future events, 752–757
past versus future events, 756–757
Consummatory responses, 914
Context
amygdala processing and, 935–942
context conditioning, 939–940
experimental context, 941–942
facial expression, 935–939
fMRI activation to specific stimuli, 936–937, 941–942
in cognitive neuroscience, 1259
in decision making, 1019–1020
in intention understanding, 635–636
in qualia space, 1212–1213, 1215
Contextual control, 1021
Contour integration, 130–131
Contour orientation, in discriminative learning, 133–134, 135, 136
Control. See also Cognitive (executive) control
interference, 1006–1007, 1013–1014
in semantic unification framework, 819
similarity with inference, 613–614
Convergent evolution, 876–877
Cooperativity, in memory formation, 113–114
Coordinate response measure (CRM), 349
Coordinate transformation, 541–543
Cornu ammonis 3 (CA3), 111
Corona radiata fibers, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 36
Corpus callosum (CC), neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 37, 39–40
Correlation
cortical, 316–318
grandmother cells, 316–318
temporal correlations in population response, 426–427
Cortical afferents
monkey entorhinal cortex, 667
monkey parahippocampal cortex, 665–666
monkey perirhinal cortex, 662–663
rodent entorhinal cortex, 667–669
rodent perirhinal cortex, 665, 666–667
Cortical architecture
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7, 9–16, 19
designation of permanent cortical layers (I-VI), 31
future perspectives, 1247–1253
comprehensive theory of brain function, 1249–1250
modular hypothesis, 1247–1249
other complex systems, 1250–1251
model for modal texture filling-in, 442–447
stages of development, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–44
of visual cortex, 130
Cortical column unit (CCU), 442
Cortical magnification factor (CMF), primate cortex, 422–423
Cortical mapping. See also Retinotopic projections/maps
human brain specialization, 53–54
motor cortex, 142–146
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30–31
protomap hypothesis, 18–19, 30–31
statistical connectivity and, 413–414
Cortical plate (CP)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11, 13, 16–18, 20, 21
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–32, 33–34, 35, 36, 43
Cortical projection neurons
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 8, 22–23
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 33
Cortical thickness, 73–74
Cortico-cortical fibers (CC)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 13
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29, 32, 37, 39–40, 43–44
Corticogenesis
designation of permanent cortical layers (I-VI), 31
neuronal circuitry of human prefrontal cortex, 29–44
stages of
cross-species comparisons, 12, 13, 16
cytoarchitectonic layers, 31
early childhood, 30, 31, 41–44
early fetal period, 29–32
early preterm period, 30, 31, 33–36
embryonic period, 30, 31
human, 20–22, 29–44
infancy, 30, 31, 39–41
late fetal period, 30, 31, 32–33
late preterm period, 30, 31, 36–37
list of stages, 30
midfetal period, 30, 31, 32–33
neonatal period, 30, 37–39, 42
neural circuitry of prefrontal cortex, 29–44
Corticopontine, comparative neuroimaging, 57
Corticosterone (CORT), in infant fear learning, 893–896
Craik O’Brian Cornsweet (COC) stimulus, 438–441
Craniotopic maps, 519–521
CREB phosphorylation (pCREB), in attachment learning, 891, 893
Critical (sensitive) periods
for face recognition, 472, 479
for language development, 841, 850
for visual plasticity, 100, 130
Crowding task, video games and, 157, 158
Crying, in pathological laughter and crying (PLC), 1184
Crystallized reasoning, 78
Cue-induced amnesia, 693–694
Cue reliability, in multisensory integration, 506–507
Cultural factors, in processing of emotional information, 931–932
CYCLE, 809
Cytoskeleton
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14
neuroplasticity and, 146–147
D
Damasio, Antonio, 1183–1184
Darwin, Charles, 49–52, 873, 1242
Deafness
American Sign Language (ASL), 169–170
attention and, 170
motor detection and, 166, 167
Decision making
defined, 1019
emotion regulation in, 966–968, 1093–1100, 1187–1188
in neuroeconomics, 1075
computational basis, 1079–1081
emotion and, 1098–1100
initial investigations, 1098–1100
multiple behavior controllers, 1078–1079
neurobiological basis, 1079–1083, 1095–1100
simple binary stimulus choice, 1076–1077, 1079–1083
valuation process, 1085–1091
prefrontal executive function in, 1019–1027
action selection, 1021
cascade model, 1021–1023
hierarchical control, 1021
medial frontal cortex, 1023–1027
motivational control, 1023–1027
Declarative memory
awareness and, 686–687
emotional modulation of, 725–733
consolidation processes, 729–731
during encoding, 725–729
future directions, 733
during retrieval, 731–733
medial temporal lobe function, 675, 679–683, 686–687
recognition memory, 680–683
sleep deprivation and, 730
Declarative/procedural hypothesis, in morphological processing, 780–782
Decoding
dynamic state of posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 607–609
neural populations in primate cortex
different cortical areas, 430
different tasks, 430–431
mechanisms, 427–429
response, 430
in reading process, 797
Decorrelation, spatial, 427
Deep-brain electrical stimulation (DBS), following severe brain injury, 1131–1134
Deep homology
conservation of developmental pathways, 876–877
defined, 873–874
demonstration of, 879
discovery of, 877–878
evolutionary innovation in cognition and language, 877–878
Default node network, 1068, 1069
Defense conditioning, 907
Dementia
basal ganglia functions and, 568
fluid reasoning in, 79
frontotemporal dementia (FTD), 79
semantic, 1008, 1047, 1053–1061
Dendrites, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 36–37, 40–41
Depictive theories, 1243
Depression, 147
Depth perception
neuronal versus behavioral sensitivity, 490
three-dimensional structural coding hypothesis, 460–463
visual area MT in, 483–496
binocular disparity processing, 483, 484–489
coarse and fine discrimination, 489–493
motion parallax, 484, 493–495
Depth sign discrimination index (DSDI), 495
Developmental biology
critical (sensitive) periods, 100, 130, 472, 479, 841, 850
defined, 876
marriage with evolutionary biology, 876
neural epigenesis, 876
Developmental stages
cross-species comparisons, 12, 13, 16
early childhood, 30, 31, 41–44
early fetal period, 29–32, 42
early preterm period, 30, 31, 33–36, 42, 43
infancy, 30, 31, 39–41, 470–473
language acquisition
neural basis, 837–851
visual processing of printed words, 791–794
late fetal period, 30, 31, 32–33, 42
late preterm period, 30, 31, 36–37, 42, 43
list of, 30
midfetal period, 30, 31, 32–33, 34
neonatal period, 30, 37–39, 42
neuronal circuitry of prefrontal lobe, 29–44
for visual plasticity
critical periods, 100, 130
early development, 129–130
late maturation, 130–131
Developmental verbal dyspraxia, 860–863
Diabetes, 858
Dieting, 957
Different band noise, 350
Different band sentence, 350
Differentiation level, 52–53
Diffusion-tensor and diffusion spectrum imaging (DTI/DSI), dense perisylvian white matter connectivity, 260–262, 263
Diffusion-tensor imaging (DTI)
of changes in interregional connectivity, 74
in comparative neuroimaging, 55–58
white matter structural changes following brain injury, 1127–1128
Direct realism, 847
Disconnection syndrome, 263–264, 269
Discourse models, in semantic unification framework, 822–824
Discriminative learning, 133–134
Disproportionate inversion effect, in face recognition, 468
Dissociation
consciousness and, 1142–1143
double dissociation in processing aphasia, 767–768, 780, 781
neuroanatomical dissociation hypothesis, 783–784
nonconscious processing of emotion, 1185–1188
and true function of consciousness, 1197–1199
Distinctiveness effects, in face recognition, 468
Distraction, 962–964, 969
anticipation in, 962
interference in, 962–964
Distributed algorithmic mechanism design (DAMD), 1251, 1252
Distributed attention, focused attention versus, 199
Domain-specific neural circuitry, 1035–1041
activity in, 1038–1040
property information in, 1035–1038
Dopamine
in basal ganglia function, 567, 571–572
in valuation process, 1087–1089
video games and, 161
Dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC), in cognitive control development, 77, 78, 254–255
Dorsal frontoparietal attention network. See Frontoparietal attention network, dorsal
Dorsal lateral geniculate (dLGN), 67–71
formation of eye-specific inputs, 68–70, 94
Dorsal visual pathway, 794–799
neuroplasticity of, 166–167, 168
reading process and
interfacing with verbal system, 798–799
orientation of attention, 795–796
parts of words, 797–798
pathology, 795–796
serial decoding, 797–798
single word selection, 796–797
timing of attention and, 193–194
visual awareness and, 1159–1160
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
conflict-control model and, 252
development of, 74–76, 77, 79, 80, 705, 706, 707
in emotion regulation, 963, 966–967
memory and, 705, 706, 707, 719, 932
moral judgment and, 988, 992–994
in processing of emotional information, 932
in simple binary stimulus-choice paradigm, 1081–1083
Double-bouquet interneurons
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 22
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 41
Double Cortex, 14
Dragon software, 332–333
Driver, in relational reasoning, 1008
Dual-process morality, 991–993
Dual-task paradigm
attention versus consciousness, 1143
blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response, 1145
Dual task performance, as cognitive control function, 76
Dualism
conceptual, 1115
defined, 1114
explanatory gap in consciousness and, 1114–1115
Dynamic belief networks, 614–621
Dynamic causal model (DCM), effective connectivity of fMRI data, 375–378
Dyslexia, 166, 167, 168. See also Reading process
attentional, 797
central, 789
developmental, 857–859, 863–866
neglect, 795–796
peripheral, 789
spatial, 798
Dyspraxia, 860–863
Dystonia, 565, 572
E
Early childhood stage. See Childhood
Early infancy stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 39–41
functional organization, 39–41
neurogenetic events, 39
structural organization, 39
Early language acquisition, 837–851
infant lexicon, 843–844
neuroscience-based measures, 837–839
phonetic learning, 839–841
second-language learning, 842, 848–849
sentence processing, 844–845
word learning, 842–843
Early preterm stage
defined, 30
laminar shifts in acetylcholinesterase (AChE), 34
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 33–36, 42, 43
functional organization, 35–36
neurogenetic events, 34–35
structural organization, 33–34
Early Reading Intervention (ERI), 175
Ecological self, 954, 955
EEG/MEG studies
brain measurement of auditory object analysis, 371, 376
physiological mechanisms in visual object selection, 229–230
of semantic unification, 822
Effective information, 1204
Efferent associative pathways, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 37, 43
Egly paradigm, 242
18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-PET technique, 57
Elaboration, effects of emotion on, 728
Electroconvulsive shock (ECS), in test of consolidation theory, 693
Electroencephalography (EEG). See also EEG/MEG studies
early language acquisition, 837–838, 839, 849–850
empathy and, 982
neural processing of emotional information, 925–926
spontaneous motor initiation, 1191
Electromyelography (EMG)
empathy and, 974–975, 981
motor cognition in autism, 636–638
muscle synergies, 544–546
Elliot Smith, Grafton, 51
Embodied cognition, 1032–1035
Embryonic stage
defined, 30, 31
formation of visual pathway, 91–92
Emotion. See also Emotion regulation; Empathy; Fear learning/conditioning; Moral judgment; Social cognition
amygdala in processing. See Amygdala
attention and, 190, 925–932
automaticity, 929–931
behavioral effects on perception, 926–928
cultural factors, 931–932
current behavior goals, 932
neural circuits underlying attention, 928–929
neural processing in perception, 925–926
personality factors, 931–932
consciousness and, 1181–1188
conscious experience of emotion, 1181–1185
nonconscious processing of emotion, 1185–1188
context effects and amygdala, 935–942
context conditioning, 939–940
experimental context, 941–942
facial expressions, 935–939, 941–942
fMRI activation to specific stimuli, 936–937, 941–942
feelings versus, 1182. See also Feelings
imaging genetics and, 945–949
amygdala reactivity, 947–948
conceptual basis of research, 945–946
importance of, 946
neuroimaging role, 945–946
principles of imaging genetics, 946
in modulation of declarative memory, 725–733
consolidation processes, 729–731
during encoding, 725–729
future directions, 733
during retrieval, 731–733
object concepts in support of feeling, 1032–1035
reaction and action, 905–919
behavioral distinctions, 905–909
neural basis of fear actions, 914–918
neural basis of fear reactions, 909–914
regulation of. See Emotion regulation
social cognition and, 1184–1185. See also Social cognition
Emotion regulation, 961–970
in decision making, 966–968, 1093–1100, 1187–1188
amygdala, 1095–1097
initial investigations, 1098–1100
striatum, 1094–1095, 1097
defined, 961
distraction, 962–964, 969
future directions, 969–970
methodology for study of, 961–962
neuroimaging research on, 968–970, 1099
reappraisal, 964–966, 969
self-regulation, 956–957
Emotional attention, 925
Emotional attention sets, 932
Emotional contagion, 974
Emotional memory, 700, 725
Empathy, 973–982. See also Social cognition
defined, 973–974
healthy versus clinical populations, 978–979
insular involvement, 977–978
modulation of, 979–981
moral judgment and, 988–989
prosocial behavior and, 982
related concepts, 973–974
shared networks hypothesis, 974–977
Encoding
dynamic state of posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 604–607
emotional influences on, 725–729
of emotional information, 728
neural populations in primate cortex, 419–432
mean response, 422–425
response variability, 425–427
theoretical framework, 420–421
in vivo measurement, 421–422
in olfaction
odor, 326–327
from percept to molecule, 330
spatial, 327–329
temporal, 329–330
temporal
odor discrimination, 329–330
perceptual learning, 135–136
variable nature of episodic memory, 743–744
Encyclopedic knowledge, in conceptual representations, 1032
End-stopped neurons, 314
Endogenous attention, 925, 932
Endpoint coordinates, 541–542
Energetic masking, auditory, 344–345, 349, 351
Entanglement
consciousness and, 1141
in qualia space, 1213
Entorhinal cortex, comparative anatomy of, 661, 662, 667–671
Entropy, in integrated information theory (IIT), 1202, 1204
Ephrin-A receptors (EphAs), 70, 92–94, 97, 98
Ephrin-B receptors (EphBs), 92–94
Episodic control, 1021
Episodic memory
as constructive, 751–759
future event simulation, 752–754, 757–759
imagining future events, 752–757
past versus future events, 756–757
distribution throughout cerebral cortex, 743–744
encoding/retrieval studies, 712, 731–733
individual differences and, 743–747
neural basis of episodic retrieval, 743
sources of variability, 744–747
variable nature of brain regions, 743–744
parahippocampal region and, 670
sleep deprivation and, 730
Epithelium, olfactory, 324–325, 327–328
ERP. See Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Error/feedback processing, as cognitive control function, 76
Error signals, in learning and learning transfer, 160
Escape from fear hypothesis (EFF), 907–909, 1096
amygdala contributions to conditioned reinforcement, 914–917, 1095–1097
conditioned motivation, 909, 915–917
described, 907–909
Essential genes, cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7–8
Estes, William, 740–741
Estimation. See Optimal estimation
Ethics, of cognitive neuroscience, 1260
Event knowledge, in semantic unification framework, 822–824
Event-related magnetic fields (ERMFs), in analysis of attention development
feature-based attention, 238–240
object-based attention, 240–246
spatial attention, 235–238
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
in analysis of attention development, 170, 176, 186, 193, 196–197
biased competition theory, 199
conflict and attentional control, 254–255
feature-based attention, 238–240
object-based attention, 240–246
spatial attention, 235–238
in auditory development, 172–173, 175
basal ganglia function and, 577–578
early language acquisition, 169–170, 837–838, 839–849
in emotion regulation, 964
face recognition and, 469, 472–473, 474–477
integration of conflict processing and attention, 253–255
in language development, 169–170
neural processing of emotional information, 929, 930
in semantic unification, 820–822, 823, 824–827
spontaneous motor initiation, 1192
in vision, 166, 167
Evolutionary biology, 49–53. See also Genetics; Genomics
cerebral cortex in, 314–316
consciousness in, 1138–1139
Darwin and, 49–52
fear learning in, 892
human brain specialization, 53–61
human brain versus other animals, 49–52
language in, 873–881
deep homology, 876–878
evo-devo perspectives, 876
human cognitive evolution, 874–876
mechanisms underlying speech and vocal learning, 878–879
semantics, 875, 879–880
syntax, 880
model-animal versus comparative approaches, 52–53
time periods, 51
Evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), 876
Excitatory neurons, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 22–23
Excitatory projection cells, cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7, 22–23
Exclusion
conscious, 1194–1195
noise, 171, 173
Executive control. See Cognitive (executive) control
Exogenous attention, 925, 932
Experience
in consciousness, 1137–1138
giving shape to, in qualia space, 1212–1213
in isolation, face recognition and, 469
Experience-dependent learning, 154–155, 161, 167
Experimental context
instructions, impact of, 941–942
neutral position, 941
static versus dynamic, 941
Explanatory gap in consciousness, 1113–1115
described, 1113–1114
dualism and, 1114–1115
Expressed knowledge, in conceptual representations, 1032
Expression studies, nature of, 857
Extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK-MRPK), 696
Extrastriate body areas (EBA), neural processing of emotional information, 926
Extreme capsule (EmC), 261
Eye movements
in attentional selection, 290
eyeblink conditioning studies, 687, 688
in feature-based selection, 226–227
memory and changes in, 687
saccades, 511–521
forward model for eye position, 600
localization error and, 514–516
in motor learning and control, 591–592
reafference cancellation in PPC, 600–601
saccadic compression, 515
saccadic suppression, 511–514, 1154
transsaccadic integration and craniotopic maps, 519–521
updating of internal spatial maps, 514–519
visual stability and, 511
transitive inference studies, 687, 688
value-related signals, 1086
F
F5 neurons, in grasping behavior of monkeys, 626–632
Face recognition
in adulthood, 467–469
core behavioral properties in humans, 467–468
electrophysiological signatures in humans, 469
neurophysiology in monkeys, 468–469
roles of experience and genetics, 469–470
behavioral measures, 467–470, 473–474, 477–478
development
for behavioral and neural measures, 477–478
in four-year-olds to adults, 473–478
in infancy, 470–473
grandmother cells in, 312–314
in infancy
critical (sensitive) period and, 472
face individuation, 470–471
perceptual narrowing, 471–472
neural measures, 468–469, 474–478
Facial expression
empathy and, 974–975
in study of human amygdala, 935–939
experimental context, 941, 942
fear, 935–936
surprise, 936–939
Faculty of language in a broad sense (FLB), 873, 875
Faculty of language in a narrow sense (FLN), 875
False memories, 700
Familiarity, medial temporal lobe function, 680–683
Fear learning/conditioning, 698–699. See also Pavlovian conditioning
avoidance conditioning, 116, 907–909
detection of threat, 957–958
escape from fear (EFF) hypothesis
conditioned motivation, 909, 915–917
described, 907–909, 1096
escape from fear hypothesis (EFF), amygdala contributions to conditioned reinforcement, 914–917, 1095–1097
facial expression and amygdala response, 935–936, 941, 942
infant, 891–896
amygdala in, 891–896
corticosterone in, 893–896
maternal separation/deprivation, 895
neonatal handling, 895–896
rearing environment alteration, 895
learned fear response, 906
neural basis for fear actions, 914–918
neural basis for fear reactions, 891–896, 909–914, 930, 1095–1097
research methodology, 906–907
Feature-based selection, 197–198
attentional-biasing signals, 208–210
eye movements in, 226–227
loss in Balint's syndrome, 271–272
selective neuronal synchronization and, 297–298
in spatiotemporal analysis of visual attention, 238–240
Feature binding, attention and, 197–198, 274–276
Feature integration theory, attention and, 197–198, 208–210, 226–227, 276–277
Feedback
within and across populations, 431
basal ganglia function and, 575–577
as cognitive control function, 76
forward versus feedback projections, 1145–1146
in learning and learning transfer, 160–161
recurrent feedforward/feedback loops, 438
visual attention and awareness, 1165–1175
anatomical observations, 1165–1166
binocular rivalry role in, 1170–1176
physiological observations, 1166–1168
role of feedback in attention, 1168–1170
visual masking role, 1170–1176
Feedback control
in motor learning and control, 588, 592
in optimal control theory, 614–622
Feelings. See also Consciousness
emotions versus, 1182. See also Emotion
meaning of, 1138
as private, 1138
Ferrets
auditory cortex, rewiring vision into, 97–98
visual cortex, formation of eye-specific inputs to dLGN, 69, 94–95
Fetal stage
early, defined, 30
late, defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–32, 30, 31, 32–33, 35, 42
functional organization, 32, 33
neurogenetic events, 31
neurogenic events, 32–33
structural organization, 29–31, 32
Field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP), 109–112, 118–121
Fight-or-flight responses, 155
Filling-in. See Perceptual filling-in
Filtering
attention and, 171
auditory, 345–348
Fine depth perception, 489–493
Firing rate, 290–291
Fish, vision, activity-dependent refinement of visual maps, 98–99
Fixed action patterns, 906
Flanker interference, 797
Flash suppression, 1142, 1144, 1145, 1154
Fluid reasoning
analogical, 78, 79
assessing reasoning ability, 78–80
brain change and improvements in, 80
development of, 73, 77–81
neural correlates of, 79–80
timing of development of, 78
Focal hand dystonia, 147
Focused attention, 192–193
distributed attention versus, 199
Footbridge dilemma, 991–992
Formal operations, 78
Fossil record, 52
FOXP2 (forkhead box P2), 59, 861–866, 878, 879
Fragile X syndrome, 147, 166
Free will. See also Consciousness
neurobiology of, 1138
Freud, Sigmund, 1033
Frogs, modularity in spinal motor system, 546–547
Frontal eye field (FEF)
anatomy of feedback in primary visual cortex, 1165–1166
conflict and cognitive control, 255–257
and dorsal frontoparietal attention network, 219–227
eye movements and, 517, 518, 600
virus tracing studies, 556–557
Frontal lobe circuitry, early development of prefrontal cortex, stages of development, 29–44
Frontoparietal attention network, 219–227
dorsal
anticipatory signals, 219–223
causality of top-down biases, 223
coding locus of attention, 224–226
conflict and cognitive control, 251–257
conflict-control model, 252
eye movements, 226–227
feature-based selection, 226–227
functional connectivity, 219–223
topographic maps/projections, 223–226
establishing goals
reward/value signals and limbic system, 227–228
task sets, 228–229
nonemotional, task-relevant information and, 727
physiological mechanisms for selection of visual objects, 229–230
prefrontal-cingular circuits, 228–229
ventral
neuroplasticity of, 166–167
relation to dorsal attention network, 219–222
timing of attention and, 193–194
visual awareness and, 1157–1158
working memory, 228–229
Frontotemporal lobal degeneration (FTLD), in relational reasoning, 1008–1015
Frozen addicts, 1141
Functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI)
comparative, 57–58
dorsal and ventral attention systems, 219–221
Functionalism, 1111
Functional knockout, 858
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
absolute and relative disparity selectivity, 486–489
action understanding, 647–648
age differences in brain activation, 82
attention and
conflict processing, 253–255
connectivity studies, 264
control of attention, 198
event-related potential (ERP), 193
feature-based attention, 209–210
middle temporal (MT) changes, 190
object-based attention, 208
object selection, 242–244
sequential/simultaneous paradigm, 212–213
space-based attention, 206–208
task sets and working memory, 228–229
temporal correlation of BOLD signal, 219
auditory object analysis, 371–379
analysis of categorical processing, 374–375
effective connectivity analysis, 375–379
multivariate analysis, 374
univariate analysis, 372–374
basal ganglia function and, 576
blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response, 313
auditory object analysis, 371–376
degree of similarity in patterns of brain activity, 742–743
genetic basis of emotional variability, 945–949
individual differences and, 742
network-brain links to visualize spiking, 435, 443, 444, 446
neuronal basis of perceptual illusions, 1144–1145
semantic unification and, 827–832
syntactic processing, 810–813
visuospatial working memory, 74
brain function and, 1067, 1068, 1070
comparative, 57–58
contour detection, 135
detecting awareness following brain injury, 1125–1127
emotion regulation, 963–968, 970, 1099
empathy and, 975–977, 981
episodic memory tasks, 739
eye movements and, 520–521
of face recognition in, 468–469, 477
fMRI mutation, 147
integration of conflict processing and attention, 253–255
interactions between control and memory, 712, 713
language processing
developmental verbal dyspraxia, 861
early language acquisition, 837–838, 839, 850
morphological processing, 782, 784
syntactic, 810–813
in methodology of cognitive neuroscience, 1255–1256, 1257–1258, 1260
mirror neural system studies, 635, 636
moral judgment and, 991, 992–993
neural processing of emotional information, 925–926, 927, 929, 930
object concepts and, 1040
perceptual filling-in, 442–449
phonological processing and, posterior language cortex in speech production, 770
posterior parietal cortex (PPC) studies, 599–600
processes in relational reasoning, 1011–1015
reading ability and, 175–176, 799
in semantic memory processing, 1062, 1063–1064
simulation of future events, 754–755
spiking activity in surface perception, 435, 443, 444, 446
spontaneous motor initiation, 1192, 1193
value-related signals, 1087–1088, 1091
visual attention and, 205–214
pupillary response, 190
selection among multiple competing objects, 210–214
units of selection, 206–210
visual plasticity and, 166
Functional maps, in primary visual cortex, 409–411
Functional organization of brain, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 32–42
Functional specialization, in Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), 794
Fusiform body areas (FBA), neural processing of emotional information, 926
Fusiform face area (FFA)
conflict-control model, 252
cortical loci of face identity processing, 468–469
in face recognition, 469, 474–479
neural processing of emotional information, 926
visual rivalry and, 1156
G
GABAergic cortical interneurons
activity-dependent refinement of visual maps, 99
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 8–9, 12, 22, 23
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35–36, 41, 42–43
Gabor function, 316
Gabor patches, 212, 243, 425, 427
Galanin, in comparative histology, 55
Gambling, 968, 1098–1100, 1187–1188
Gamma-band synchronization, 292–298
Ganglionic eminence (GE), neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31
Gaussian priors, 615, 616, 617
Gazzaniga, Michael, 1221, 1233, 1255
Gender, in lesion studies of language function, 741
Gene transcription, in ocular dominance plasticity, 100–102
Generalist genes, 863
Generalization
in auditory training, 355–358, 360
in color vision, 396–406
overgeneralization, 1048, 1051–1052, 1059
Genetics. See also Evolutionary biology; Genomics
of emotional variability, 945–949
amygdala reactivity, 947–948
conceptual basis of research, 945–946
importance of, 946
neuroimaging role, 945–946
principles of imaging genetics, 946
inherited color vision deficiencies, 388–392
of language impairment, 855–856
approaches to study of, 856–857
developmental dyslexia, 857–859
developmental verbal dyspraxia, 860–863
evidence, 855–857
perspectives, 863–866
specific language impairment, 859–860
speech sound disorder, 860
in methodology of cognitive neuroscience, 1257
Genomics
comparative, 58–61
gene sequencing, 58–61
phenotype changes, 59–61
Genotypes, 876
Geometric cues, 483
Gestalt psychology, 212–213, 317
Gibbs distribution, 615
Gibbs sampling, 622
Glial acidic fibrillary protein (GAFP), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9, 22
Global workspace approach to consciousness
described, 1111–1112
explanatory gap and, 1114
machine consciousness and, 1119–1120
sensory activation in, 1112, 1146, 1160
Globus pallidus (GPi)
basal ganglia function, 569–571
central thalamic deep-brain stimulation, 1131
virus tracing studies, 553–556
Glomerular modules, 328
Glossogeny, 875
Glutamate cycling, 1070
Glutamate receptors, 112–113
Glutamergic neurons, 35, 42
Glutamergic thalamic afferents, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 36–37, 43–44
Glycoprotein, 94
Gnostic neurons (Konorski), 309–312. See also Grandmother cells (visual cortex)
Goal-directed choice, 1075–1083. See also Goals; Neuroeconomics
computational basis, 1079–1081
multiple behavior controllers, 1078–1079
neurobiological basis, 1079–1083, 1095–1100
simple binary stimulus choice, 1076–1077, 1079–1083
Goal representation. See also Goals
in bimanual coordination, 645–647
hierarchical nature of, 642–644
on-line control of grasp, 644–645
Goals. See also Goal-directed choice; Goal representation
frontoparietal network and, 227–229, 626–627
in learning and learning transfer, 160–161
premotor cortex and, 1037–1039
Grammar
agrammatic aphasia, 808
artificial grammar learning, 880
components of, 1235–1237
Grammatical categories
in morphological processing, 782–785
neuroanatomical dissociation hypothesis, 783–784
Grandmother cells (visual cortex), 309–319
correlation, 316–318
cortical function, 314–316
defined, 310
history, 309–314
invariance, 316–318
symmetry, 316–318
Granger causality analysis, 223
Grasping behavior
goal representation and, 644–645
mirror neural system and, 626–638
Gray matter. See also White matter (WM)
in cognitive control development, 76
in fluid reasoning development, 80
and plasticity of human neurocognition, 165
thickness of, 73–74
Great Chain of Being, 49–50
Grid cells, 121
Gross, Charles, 309–310, 312–313, 318
GY (patient), nonconscious processing of emotion, 1186, 1194–1195, 1199
H
Habits
goal-directed choice and, 1078, 1083
medial temporal lobe function and, 679–680
nature of, 906
Haddad, Rafi, 334–335
Haeckel, Ernst, 50
Hallucinations, 1156
Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation, 549
Hand-eye coordination
in athletics, 155, 156–157
video games and, 157–158
Hand motor function
focal hand dystonia, 147
recovery after stroke, 148–149
specificity of learning, 154
Hawthorne effect, 155
Heading discrimination task, 500–502, 503–505
Heart disease, 858
Hebb, Donald, 109, 129
Hebbian rule of synaptic plasticity, 99, 100–101, 129
Hebrew, classical, functional morphemes in, 777
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 132, 137, 305, 321, 514, 530, 621
Hemianopia, 792, 1159
Herrick, C. J., 316
Heschl's gyrus (HG), 372–373, 377–378, 1237
Hierarchical control
in decision making, 1019, 1021
forms of, 641–642
memory and, 707–709
in representation of action, 641–650
action semantics, 648–650
action understanding, 647–648
anatomical versus representational hierarchy, 642–644
bimanual coordination, 645–647
goal representation, 644–647
grasp control, 644–645
hierarchy of serial behavior, 641–642
historical perspective, 641–642
reverse hierarchy theory (Hochstein and Ahissar), 194
in surface perception, 437–438
Hierarchical Linear Growth Curve modeling, 840
High-frequency stimulation (HFS), 111, 112, 117
Higher order consciousness, described, 1116
Higher order thought (HOT) approach to consciousness
consciousness of and, 1115–1116, 1182
described, 1111
explanatory gap and, 1114
machine consciousness and, 1119–1120
problems in, 1115–1118
self in, 1118
sensory activation in, 1112
Hillyard principle, 170
Hinckley, John, Jr., 1260
Hippocampus
amygdala modulation of consolidation in, 729–730
attractor networks, 121–123
basal ganglia function and, 575–576
lesion studies of medial temporal lobe function, 675–678, 681–682, 685–686
long-term memory and, 229
long-term potentiation (LTP) studies, 109–111, 116, 119–121
response to simulation of future events, 756, 759
Histamine, 1140
Histology, human brain specialization, 54–55
HM (amnesia patient), 656, 659, 675
Hodological studies, mirror neural system in monkeys, 626
Holistic/configural processing, in face recognition, 468
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 993
Homeostatic afferent system, 1183–1184
Homeostatic processes, in ocular dominance plasticity, 101
Hominoids
brain specialization, 53–61
comparative genomics, 58–61
comparative histology, 54–55
comparative neuroimaging, 55–58
types of, 53
Homunculus, 1152–1154, 1248–1249
HOX genes, 876, 878, 879
Hubel, David, 309, 311–312, 314, 409
Humphrey Field Analyzer (HFA-II-I), 1119
Huntington's disease, 561
basal ganglia functions and, 565, 568, 573–574, 577
Huxley, Thomas H., 52
Hyperdirect pathway, in basal ganglia function, 568–569
Hypocretin, 1140
Hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) responsiveness, 893, 895–896
I
Illusions
Kanisza illusion, 213
neuronal basis of, 1143–1145
Illusory correlation, 1051–1052
Imagery debate, 1241–1245
general lessons from, 1244–1245
relevance of the brain, 1243–1244
theory of cognition, 1241–1243
Imaging genetics, 945–949
amygdala reactivity and human emotion, 947–948
basic principles, 946
conceptual basis, 945–946
importance of, 946
neuroimaging in, 946
Implicit memory, in perceptual learning, 132
Impulse-control disorders, basal ganglia function and, 572–573
Incest, moral judgment and, 990
Indirect pathway, in basal ganglia function, 568–569
Individual differences, 733
dangers of averaging across subjects, 739–741
episodic memory and, 743–747
sources of variability, 744–747
variable nature of episodic memory, 743–744
genetic basis of emotional variability, 945–949
moral judgment and, 992
neuroimaging and, 741–742
in processing of emotional information, 931–932
similarity between two patterns of brain activity, 742–743
Infancy. See also Developmental stages
attachment learning, 889–891, 894
differential development and, 1048
early language acquisition, 837–851
bilingual infants, 848–849
infant lexicon, 843–844
neuroscience-based measures, 837–839
phonetic learning, 839–841
second-language learning, 842, 848–849
word learning, 842–843
face recognition in, 470–473
fear learning, 891–896
phenomenal consciousness during, 1117–1118
Inference
in Bayesian statistics, 159, 614–622
and higher order of thought (HOT) approach to consciousness, 1116
similarity with control, 613–622
transitive inference studies of eye movements, 687, 688
Inferior frontal cortex (IFC), in semantic unification network, 827–832
Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)
action understanding, 647–648
language processing and, 260, 811–813
mirror neural system and, 633–634
modularity of language and, 1236–1238
in specific language impairment (SLI), 859
Inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus (IOF), dense perisylvian white matter connectivity, 261
Inferior parietal lobule (IPL)
mirror neural system and, 626–638
perisylvian network for spatial orienting, 259–260, 263
Inferotemporal (IT) cortex
in depth perception, 489
virus tracing studies, 558–559
Inflections, 777
Information, in integrated information theory (IIT), 1202–1204
Information detection, effect of emotion on, 726–727
Information theory, 1146–1147
Informational masking, auditory, 345–351
simultaneous multitone maskers, 345–348
speech recognition and, 348–351
Informational relationships, in qualia space, 1212, 1213
Inhibition
of attention, 193
conscious, 1194–1195
Inhibitory avoidance training, 116
Inhibitory interneurons, cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7
Input specificity, in memory formation, 113, 114
Instinct to learn, 873
Integrated information theory (IIT), 1111–1112, 1147, 1202–1216
complexes in, 1205, 1207
down-set of red, 1215
information in, 1202–1204
integration in, 1203, 1204–1205, 1207
measuring integrated information, 1203–1205
neurobiological observations, 1205–1209
up-set of nonred, 1215
Integration control, in relational reasoning, 1006–1007
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
effect of music lessons on, 156
experience-dependent learning and, 154–155
in lesion studies of language function, 741
measuring, 154–155, 156
Mozart effect, 154–155
music lessons and, 156
socioeconomic factors in, 80, 171
timing of cortical maturation in frontal regions, 80
Intelligence, integrated information theory of, 1112
Intention
in intention understanding, 632–633, 635–636
movement anticipation and, 599–601
Interaural level differences (ILDs), 359–362
Interaural time differences (ITDs), 359–362
Interface hypothesis of attention, 213–214
Interface mechanisms, in phonological processing, 768
Interference, 962–964
defined, 709
interactions between control and memory, 710–713
interference suppression/resolution, 76, 714–719
reduced, 714–719
Interference control, 1006–1007, 1013–1014
Intermediate sensory representations, 619–621
Intermediate zone (IZ)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11, 13, 20, 21
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 33
International Affective Picture Set (IAPS), 964, 966, 970
Internet, ad auctions and, 1250–1251
Interoceptive system, 1183–1184
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), 978–979
Interpolation
defined, 436–437
in surface perception, 439–442
Interpretation, of stimulus, 1038
Interstitial neurons, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 10
Intracortical connections, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 39
Intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus (ILN), 1140
Intraparietal sulcus (IPS)
and dorsal frontoparietal attention network, 219–227
neural correlates in PPC, 604
neural processing of emotional information, 929
social cognition and, 955
in visuospatial working memory, 74
Intrinsic projections
cost of intrinsic activity, 1068–1070
monkey entorhinal cortex, 667
monkey parahippocampal cortex, 665–666
monkey perirhinal cortex, 663–665
organization of intrinsic activity, 1070–1071
rodent entorhinal cortex, 669
rodent perirhinal cortex, 665, 667
Introspection, 1141–1142
Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), 1098–1099, 1187–1188
Ipsilateral cortex, 94, 98–99, 123, 148
Isolating languages, functional morphemes in, 777
Isometrics
defined, 614
duality of Bayesian inference and optimal control, 614–615
J
Jackson, John Hughlings, 741
James, William, 129, 173–175, 954, 1031, 1182–1183
James-Lange theory of emotion, 977, 1182
Jaynes, E. T., 530
Jebsen Taylor Hand function test (JTT), 149
Joint coordinates, 542–543
Journal citation maps, 1222–1230
developing, 1222–1226
interpreting, 1226–1230
K
Kalman filter, 602–603, 608–609, 617, 621–622
Kalman gain, 590, 603
Kamada-Kawai algorithm, 1230
Kanisza illusion, 213
Kant, Immanuel, 269, 270
KCC transporter, 36
KE family (multigenerational pedigree), 860–863, 864–865
Khan, Rehan, 330
Konorski, Jerzy, 309–312
Konorski, John, 129
Kullback-Liebler (KL) divergence, 618, 1204
Kuypers/Jürgens hypothesis, 878
L
L cone mosaic
Bayesian statistics and, 401–404
described, 395
functional consequences of, 386–388
structural organization of, 386, 387
Laminar domain
bilaminar distribution of early synapses, 32
neocortical development
cross-species comparisons, 7, 18–19
shifts in acetylcholinesterase (AChE), 34
Lancet, Doron, 324
Language impairment, 166, 171, 259–260. See also specific types
genetics in, 855–856
approaches to study of, 856–857
developmental dyslexia, 857–859
developmental verbal dyspraxia, 860–863
evidence, 855–857
perspectives, 863–866
specific language impairment, 859–860
speech sound disorder, 860
in reading process, 792–798
Language processing. See also Language impairment
attention training for children, 173–174, 176
auditory processing and, 168–169
Chomsky's model, 806, 807–808, 837, 855
cognitive neuroscience of, 1235–1239
future directions, 1238–1239
modularity of language, 1235–1238
right hemisphere in language processing, 1238
consciousness versus, 1141–1142
early language acquisition, 837–851
in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 845–847
bilingual infants, 848–849
infant lexicon, 843–844
mirror neurons and shared brain systems, 847–848
neuroscience-based measures, 837–839
phonetic learning, 839–841
second-language learning, 842, 848–849
sentence processing, 844–845
word learning, 842–843
in evolutionary biology, 873–881
deep homology, 873–874, 876–878
evo-devo perspectives, 876
human cognitive evolution, 874–876
mechanisms underlying speech and vocal learning, 878–879
semantics, 879–880
syntax, 880
genetics of language, 855–866
developmental dyslexia, 857–859
developmental verbal dyspraxia, 860–863
evidence, 855–857
perspectives, 863–866
specific language impairment, 859–860
speech sound disorder, 860
morphological processes, 777–785
grammatical categories, 782–785
morphological composition in the lexicon, 778
neural basis, 778–780
regular/irregular debate in, 780–782
perisylvian network for spatial orienting, 259–260
phonological, 767–774
auditory-motor integration networks, 771
defined, 767
left posterior planum temporale (area Spt) in, 770–771
mirror neurons in, 773
motor theories of perception in, 773
posterior language cortex in left hemisphere, 770
speech recognition, 769–773
spoken word recognition, 768–769
superior temporal sulcus (STS) in, 769
task dependence, 767–768
plasticity in development, 169–170
reading process, 789–800
dorsal visual pathway, 794–798
interfacing with verbal system, 798–799
ventral visual pathway, 789–794
semantic. See Semantic processing
signed language, 169–170
syntactic, 169, 805–814
lesion studies, 807–810
neuroimaging studies, 810–813
syntactic representations and processing, 805–807
syntax-semantics framework, 824–827
Wernicke-Geschwind model, 741
Late infancy stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 39–41
functional organization, 39–41
neurogenetic events, 39
structural organization, 39
Late positive potentials (LPP), neural processing of emotional information, 926
Late preterm stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 36–37, 42, 43, 44
functional organization, 37
neurogenetic events, 36–37
structural organization, 36
Lateral amygdala (LA), in fear reaction, 911–912, 914–915, 918–919
Lateral entorhinal area (LEA), comparative anatomy of, 667–669, 671
Lateral frontal cortex (LFC), in decision making, 1021–1023
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
baseline activity in spatial attention, 206–208
eye movements and, 513
feedback in, 1165–1166, 1168–1169, 1173
in formation of visual pathway, 92–95
grandmother cell research, 309, 315
physiology of feedback in, 1165–1166, 1168–1170
receptive fields in visual cortex, 410–413
in rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 95–98, 167
visual rivalry and, 1156
Lateral intraparietal cortex (LIP)
eye movements and, 516–518
in valuation process, 1089, 1090
Lateral prefrontal cortex, in emotion regulation, 964–965
Laughter, in pathological laughter and crying (PLC), 1184
Layer I pyramids, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 37, 44
Layer II pyramids, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 37
Layer III pyramids, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–32, 36–41, 44
Layer IIIC pyramids, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44
Layer IV pyramids, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 32, 36, 37, 41
Layer V pyramids
in comparative histology, 54
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29, 33, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44
Layer VI pyramids
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 36–39, 92–98
visual awareness and, 165–1168, 1155–1156, 1159, 1170, 1171, 1172–1176
visual plasticity in postnatal development, 129–132, 136–137
Le Gros Clark, W. E., 51
Learned fear response, 906
Learning
basal ganglia function and, 375–377
experience-dependent, 154–155, 161, 167
fear conditioning, 116, 118, 698–699
infant
attachment, 889–891, 894–896
fear, 891–896
memory versus, 655
motor. See Motor processing
perception versus, 675
rewards in, 161, 588, 592–593
in simple binary stimulus-choice paradigm, 1081, 1083
Learning transfer, determinants of, 158–161
LeDoux, Joseph, 696
Left visual field (LVF)
in attending parts of words, 797–798
in early visual processing of printed words, 791–792
in semantic processing, 820
in serial decoding, 797–798
Lesion studies
of action semantics, 649–650
of aphasia, 1236
of basal ganglion function, 571, 575–576, 594
in conditioned fear reactions, 914–917, 1096–1097
of decision making, 1094
of emotion regulation, 968–969, 970
implicit perception and, 195–196
of language function, 741
of medial temporal lobe function, 675–686
in methodology of cognitive neuroscience, 1256
of morphological processing, 779, 782
paradoxical effect of brain, 142–143
parahippocampal function in rats, 660, 670
phonological processing and, posterior language cortex in speech production, 770
plasticity as opportunity for intervention, 148
posterior parietal cortex (PPC) function, 601, 603–604
of pure alexia, 794
of spatial dyslexia, 798
spatial neglect and, 259, 263–264, 266
of syntactic processing, 807–814
in visual plasticity, 131–132
Lettvin, Jerry, 309, 310, 312
Levels of representation, in learning and learning transfer, 159
Levick, Bill, 311
Lewis, Donald, 694
Lexical-semantic systems, 771–773
Lexicon
infants’ early, 843–844
morphological composition in, 778
Libet, Benjamin, 1192–1193
Libet clock paradigm, 1192–1193
Ligand-gated (NMDA-type) receptors/channels, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 15
Likelihood function, 527
Limbic system
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31
reward/value signals in, 227–228
Linkage studies
of developmental dyslexia, 857–858
genetic linkage sites, 863–864
nature of, 856
Lipps, Theodore, 974
LISA model of relational reasoning, 1007–1010, 1011, 1013, 1015
Lissencephaly Type I, 14
Little Albert (case), 907
Lømo, Terje, 109–111
Local combination detector (LCD) model, 789–790, 794, 799
Localization error, eye movements and, 514–516
Locke, John, 129
Locked-in state (LIS), 1124–1125
Locus coeruleus (LC), in attachment learning, 891
Locus of attention
coding in dorsal attention network, 224–226
spatial attention in visual system, 237–238
Loftus, Elizabeth, 700
Long-term depression (LTD)
discovery of, 111
plasticity of synaptic connections, 109–123, 146–147
overview of cellular mechanisms, 111–113
properties relevant for memory formation, 113–114
studies in behaving animals, 114–119
of visual inputs, 100–101
Long-term memory (LTM)
consolidation theory and, 692–695
frontoparietal network and, 229
molecular and cellular correlates, 697–698
path integration and, 683–684
working memory versus, 683
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
discovery of, 109
in fear reaction, 912
hippocampal receptive fields, 119–121
place fields, 119–121
plasticity of synaptic connections, 109–123, 146–147
overview of cellular mechanisms, 111–113
properties relevant for memory formation, 113–114
studies in behaving animals, 114–119
of visual inputs, 100–101
Long-term potentiation in late phase (L-LTP), 112–113, 697–698
Low-frequency stimulation (LFS), 111, 112
LQG, 617, 621–622
M
M cone mosaic
Bayesian statistics and, 401–404
described, 395
functional consequences of, 386–388
structural organization of, 386, 387
Macaque. See Monkeys
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), 840
Machine consciousness, 1119–1120
Machine learning, 158–159
Macular degeneration (MD), 131–132
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), in comparative neuroimaging, 55
Magnetoencephalography (MEG). See also EEG/MEG studies
early language acquisition, 837–839, 842, 847, 850
empathy and, 975, 982
neural processing of of emotional information, 925–926, 930
Main complex, 1205
Mammals, cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7–23
Manipulation, as cognitive control function, 76
MAP2, 55, 57
Mapping connections, in relational reasoning, 1008
Marginal zone (MZ)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11, 13
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30–32, 33, 43
Marking Paradigm, 193
Marr's theory of object perception, 795
Masking. See also Auditory masking
metacognitive, 1198, 1199
in saccadic suppression, 512, 1154
Master map of locations (Treisman), 273
Maternal separation/deprivation, 895
Matin, Leonard, 514
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), 92
McGurk effect, 499
MCHI (microcephalin), 57–59
Mean population response
dynamics, 425
primate cortex, 422–425
sparseness of, 423–425
spatial spread of, 422–423
variability, 425–427
Measurement density, 527
Medial bank of intraparietal sulcus (MIP), 599–600
Medial entorhinal area (MEA), comparative anatomy of, 667–669, 671
Medial frontal cortex (MFC), in decision making, 1023–1027
Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN), in rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 95–98, 167, 168
Medial nucleus of CM (CEm), in fear reaction, 912–913, 918–919
Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)
in conditioned fear reactions, 917, 918
in emotion regulation, 963, 965–966
moral judgment and, 990–991
object concepts and, 1038
social cognition and, 954–956
in surprise reactions, 936–939
Medial superior temporal area (MSTd)
neuron response in variants of heading discrimination, 503–505
optic flow in primates, 502–503
Medial temporal lobe
memory function, 675–687
awareness, 686–687
declarative memory, 686–687
habit learning, 679–680
intact visual perception, 675–678
path integration, 683–684
recollection and familiarity, 680–683
remote memory, 684–686
response to simulation of future events, 755
working memory, 678–679
parahippocampal region, 659–671
boundaries and nomenclature, 660–662
connectivity in, 662–669
damage to, 659–660
defined, 660
entorhinal cortex, 659–660, 661, 662, 667–671
in monkeys, 660–666, 667
parahippocampal cortex, 659, 661, 665–666
perirhinal cortex, 659, 660–665
postrhinal cortex, 663, 666–667, 670
in rodents, 662, 665, 666–671
in perceptual learning, 132
Mediodorsal nucleus, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35
Medium spiny neuron (MSN), response to severe brain injury, 1130–1131
Memory. See also Amnesia; Episodic memory; Priming; Semantic memory; Working memory
autobiographical, 684–686, 726, 731, 753
cognitive control and. See Cognitive (executive) control, memory and
cognitive tradition, 691, 699–700
defined, 691
emotional, 700, 725
false memories, 700
imperfections of, 656–657
learning versus, 655
medial temporal lobe function and, 675–687
awareness and memory, 686–687
habit learning, 679–680
path integration, 683–684
recollection and familiarity, 680–683
remote memory, 684–686
visual perception, 675–678
working memory, 678–679
nature of, 655
in perceptual learning, 132–136
physiological tradition, 691
reconsolidation, 656, 691–700
alternative interpretations, 696–698
cognitive implications, 699–700
consolidation theory, 692–693
constraining, 695–696
reviving, 693–695
systems, 698–699
in semantic unification framework, 819
in spatial learning, 114–116, 119–121
synaptic modifications and, 109–111, 113–119, 121–122
Memory impairment. See also Amnesia
future-event simulation and, 752–754
Memory processing theory (Lewis), 694
Mental rotation, video games and, 157, 159
Mentalizing, 954, 955–956, 973–974. See also Empathy; Social cognition
Messenger RNA (mRNA), comparative, 59–61
Mice. See Rodents
Micrographia, striatal damage and, 593–594
Middle longitudinal fasciculus (MdLF), connectivity studies, 261–262
Middle superior temporal (MST)
motion sensitivity of, 166, 318
symmetry and invariance, 318
Middle superior temporal (TST), eye movements and, 513
Middle temporal (MT)
changes with attention, 190
depth perception, 483–496
binocular disparity processing, 484–489
coarse and fine discrimination, 489–493
motion parallax, 484, 493–495
eye movements and, 513
motion sensitivity of, 166, 284–285, 318
symmetry and invariance, 317–318
Midfetal stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 32–33, 34
functional organization, 33
laminar shifts in acetylcholinesterase (AChE), 34
neurogenic events, 32–33
structural organization, 32
Midlateral PFC, cascade model and, 1023
Miller, George A., 1221, 1233
Mimicry, 114
Minimally conscious state (MCS), 1123, 1124, 1125–1127, 1130–1134, 1139
Minimum information partition (MIP), in qualia space, 1214
Mirror-invariant representation, 798
Mirror neuron system, 625–638
defined, 625
discovery, 847
human, 633–638
anatomy, 633–635
intention understanding, 635–636
motor cognition in autism, 636–638
plasticity, 635
monkey, 626–633
anatomy, 626
audiovisual, 630–632
functional properties, 627–632
goal-relatedness/chaining, 626–627
and shared brain systems, 847–848
Mismatch negativity (MMN), 840–842, 846
Mismatch problem, and higher order of thought (HOT) approach to consciousness, 114–115
Mnemonic activity, 669–670
reduced interference in memory tasks, 714–715
reduced uncertainty in memory tasks, 715–719
Mnemonic effects of emotion, 730–731
Model-animal approach, comparative approach versus, 52–53
Modes, in qualia space, 1213
Modular hypothesis
of cortical architecture, 1247–1249
in language processing, 1247–1249
Monkeys. See also Neural populations in primate cortex
attention research
attentional bottleneck, 282–283
attentional processing, 295, 297
biased competition theory, 198–199
feature-based selection, 241–2492
chimpanzee population decline, 61
comparisons of mammalian cortical development, 7–23, 56–58, 1138–1139
conscious perception in, 153–154
decision making by, 1085–1086, 1089–1090
depth perception in, 489–490
empathy research, 975–982
in evolutionary biology, 49–61
face recognition in, 468, 471, 472
language processing in evolutionary biology, 873–876, 880
memory, analysis of parahippocampal region, 660–666, 667
model-animal versus comparative approach and, 52–53
motor processing, mirror neuron system, 625, 626–633
multisensory integration, 499–508
correlation with behavioral choice, 505–506
cortical neuron response, 502–503
cue reliability, 506–507
heading discrimination, 500–502, 503–505
optic flow, 500–503
Monkeys (continued)
signal detection theory, 503–505
vestibular signals, 500–502
neuronal basis of perceptual illusions, 1143–1144
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 33, 41
plasticity of neurocognition, 165
posterior parietal cortex (PPC), movement anticipation and anticipation, 599–600
visual cortex
formation of eye-specific inputs, 70
grandmother cell studies, 313–315
perceptual learning and, 133, 134–135
task-specific top down influences, 136–137
Monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A), in imaging genetics studies, 947
Monochromacy
blue cone, 390
rod, 390–392
Monocular deprivation (MD)
partial spatial loss due to, 273–277
and plasticity of ocular dominance, 99–102
Moral judgment, 987–1001
brain damage and, 987–988
dual-process morality, 991–993
mapping moral emotion, 988–991
mental states of moral agents, 993–994
neuroeconomics and, 530, 994–995
Morphemes
derivational, 777
functional, 777–778
ignoring, 779
Morphological processes, 777–785
grammatical categories, 782–785
morphological composition in the lexicon, 778
neural basis of, 778–780
regular/irregular debate in, 780–782
Morphophonology, 780
Morris water maze task, 114–116
Motherese, 846–847
Motion detection, visual plasticity and, 166, 167
Motion parallax
defined, 493
in depth perception, 484, 493–495
Motivation
in avoidance conditioning, 116, 907–909
conditioned, 909
in learning and learning transfer, 161
Motivational control, in decision making, 1023–1027
anatomical definitions, 1024
changing action-outcome associations, 1025
changing task demands, 1024–1025
theories of MFC function, 1024
Motor act, defined, 632
Motor act representations, 627
mirror neural system in monkeys, 626–628
Motor action, defined, 632
Motor cortex (M1)
athletic domain, 155, 156–157
cortical mapping studies, 142–146
forward state estimation for online control, 602–603
organization, 553, 554–555
specificity of learning, 154, 155–156
Motor effector manipulations, in phonological processing, 771
Motor primitives, 541–549
compositionality, 543, 547–548
modularity in frog spinal motor system, 546–547
movement planning to execution, 541–543, 547
nature of, 543
synergies, 543–546, 548–549, 619–621
Motor processing
in autism, 636–638
basal ganglia function and, 568–573, 575–577, 579
computational neuroanatomy, 581–596
cerebellum, 591–592
limitations in applying theory, 595
parietal cortex damage and state estimation, 594
problem in reaching, 589–590
problem of motor control, 587–588
rewarding nature of sensory states, 592–593
striatal damage in assessing movement costs and rewards, 593–594
consciousness and
conscious veto of, 1193–1194
spontaneous motor initiation, 1191–1193
mirror neuron system, 625–638
defined, 625
human, 625, 633–638
intention understanding, 632–633, 635–636
monkey, 625, 626–633
object concepts, 1035
optimality in, 615–617
sensory processing compared with, 613–622
algorithms for learning and online computation, 621–622
Bayesian inference, 614–622
inference versus control, 613–614
intermediate representations, 619–621
optimal control, 614–619
Motor speech areas, in phonological processing, 770–771
Motor-speech systems, 771–773
Motor theories of perception, 773
Movement release and inhibition
basal ganglia function, 568–573, 579
conscious, 1194–1195
Mozart effect, 154–155
MUC (memory, unification, control) framework, 819
Multidimensional scaling (MDS), in auditory object analysis, 368–370
Multiple-self models, in valuation process, 1088–1089
Multiscale spatial frequency filing theory, 436
Multisensory integration, 499–508. See also Sensory processing
correlation with behavioral choice, 505–506
cortical neuron response, 502–503
cue reliability, 506–507
heading discrimination, 500–502, 503–505
optic flow, 500–503
in phonological processing, 770–771
signal detection theory, 503–505
vestibular signals, 500–502
Muratoff's fascicle, 36
Muscle coordinates, 542
Muscle synergies, motor behavior and, 543–546, 548–549, 619–621
Musical domain
effect of music lessons on IQ, 156
Mozart effect, 154–155
Myelination, of white matter, 76
Myelinization, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 42
Myelogenesis, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 39, 41
Myohyloid muscle (MH), in autism, 636–638
N
N170 potential, in face recognition, 472–473, 474–477, 477
N200 potential, neural signatures of word learning, 843
N290 potential, in face recognition, 472–473
N400 potential, in semantic processing, 169, 170, 820–827, 845
Narrative self, 954
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 61
Native language neural commitment (NLNC) hypothesis, 840, 850
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), early language acquisition, 837–838, 839, 846–847
Neglect dyslexia, 795–796
Neocortical function
cross-species comparisons of mammals, 7–23
cognitive processing, 7–8, 20, 22–23
cortical architecture, 7
cortical size determinants, 15–17
differentiation level, 52–53
neuronal cell migration, 10–14
onset of neurogenesis, 8
origins of cortical neurons, 8–9
protomap hypothesis, 18–19
radial unit hypothesis, 14–15
span of neurogenesis, 8
stages of cortical development in humans, 20–22
synaptic connections, 7, 19–20
transient embryonic zones, 9–10
prefrontal. See Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Neonatal stage
defined, 30
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 37–39, 44
functional organization, 37–39
neurogenetic events, 37
structural organization, 37
Neural networks
computational model for texture filling-in, 442–447
global architecture, 442–443
single processing units, 442
dynamic changes in activity, 142–146
frontoparietal attention network, 219–227
network-brain links, 443–444
perisylvian, 259–266
synaptic plasticity in, 121–123
Neural populations in primate cortex
decoding, mechanisms, 427–429
encoding, 419–432
mean response, 422–425
response variability, 425–427
theoretical framework, 420–421
in vivo measurement, 421–422
Neural priming, 715, 717
Neural signatures
in sentence processing, 844–845
in typically developing children, 839–841
of word learning, 842–843
Neural tuning, 456–463
central and anterior (CIT/AIT), 461–465
posterior (PIT), 458–461, 463–464
Neuroeconomics
defined, 530, 1075
emotion in, decision making and, 1098–1100
of goal-directed choice, 1075–1083
computational basis, 1079–1081
multiple behavior controllers, 1078–1079
neurobiological basis, 1079–1083, 1095–1100
simple binary stimulus choice, 1076–1077, 1079–1083
moral judgment and, 994–995
valuation in, 1085–1091
amygdala and, 1097
basic structure, 1087–1089
choice and, 1089–1091
initial investigations, 1098–1100
striatum and, 1097
two-stage model, 1085–1087
Neuroepithelium, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9–10
Neuroimaging. See also Imaging genetics; specific types of imaging
comparative, 55–58
emotion regulation and, 961–970, 1099
commonalities across strategies, 968–969
differences across strategies, 969
future directions, 969–970
unique executive function system, 969
functional, 58
of future-event simulation, 754–757
individual differences in, 741–742
of morphological processing, 779, 780–785
random-effects analysis, 742
structural, 55–58
Neuronal cell migration, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 10–14
Neuronal correlates of consciousness (NCC), 1140–1141, 1143–1145, 1172–1176
Neuronal mechanisms, in perceptual learning, 133–136
discrimination learning, 133–134
enhanced responsiveness, 134–135
shifted cortical representation, 134–135
Neurons. See Neural populations in primate cortex; specific types of neurons
Neuropeptides
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35
neuropeptide Y (NPY) in imaging genetics studies, 948
Neuroplasticity, 141–150, 165–176. See also Plasticity
as cause of disease, 147
complementary mechanisms in control of, 146–147
cortical mapping studies, 142–146
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 19
interventions, 148–149, 173–176
of mirror neural system, 635
as opportunity for intervention, 148–149, 173–176
plasticity as normal state, 142
profiles
attention, 170–173
audition, 167–169
language, 169–170
vision, 166–167
Neurotransmitters, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 18
NLM-e, 844
NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors
muscle synergies and, 546–547
synaptic plasticity and, 111–116, 117, 119–121
No consciousness theory of consciousness, 1114
Noise, additive versus multiplicative, 425
Noise exclusion, attention and, 171, 173
Nondeclarative memory, forms of, 675
Nonspatial working memory, development of, 75
Nonspeech signals, 846–847
Noradrenaline, 1140
Norepinephrine, 1140
Norepinephrine (NE), in mediating learned behavior, 890–891, 894
Notch functions, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9
Novel orientation, in learning and learning transfer, 159
NPY, 35
Nucleus accumbens (NAcc)
in conditioned fear reactions, 917–918
in decision making, 1094, 1097
Numb (protein), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9
Nyquist frequency, 383
O
Object analysis
auditory. See Auditory processing
concept of, 367–368
Object-based selection, 191–192
attentional-biasing signals, 208
loss in Balint's syndrome, 270–271
neuroimaging studies, selecting among multiple competing objects, 210–214
physiological mechanisms, 229–230
in spatiotemporal analysis of visual attention, 240–246
units of selection, 208, 209
Object classification, 159
Object concepts
defined, 1031
hierarchical organization of, 1031–1032
nature of, 1031–1032
neural foundations, 1032–1042
acting, 1032–1035
anterior regions of temporal lobe, 1040–1041
domain-specific neural circuitry, 1035–1041
feeling, 1032–1035
perceiving, 1032–1035
visual processing, 1032
Object recognition
auditory, 367–380
concept of auditory object, 367–368
fMRI studies, 371–379
manipulation of natural stimuli, 368–370
stimuli based on sequence of objects, 370–371
synthetic stimuli, 370
in grasping studies, 644
visual, 159, 455–465
in discriminative learning, 133–134
network processing of boundary fragments, 463–464
object concepts and, 1031–1042
retinal representation, 455
three-dimensional surface fragments, 460–463
two-dimensional object boundary fragments, 455–460
word perception as object perception, 789–792
Object substitution masking, 200
Objective approaches, to measuring visual awareness, 1151–1152
Observer framework, 601–603
accounting for neurobiological explanations, 1205–1209
feedback in visual attention, 1165–1175
ideal Bayesian observer, 420–421, 530
Kalman filter, 602–603, 608–609
nature of observer, 602
sensory biases in selective attention, 219–223
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 561
basal ganglia function and, 568, 571, 572, 577
Occipitotemporal sulcas, 662
Ocular dominance
ocular dominance columns (ODCs)
eye-specific inputs to dLGN, 68–70, 94
formation of, 67–68
plasticity of, 91, 99–102
Ocular dominance (continued)
anatomy of, 99
changes in extracellular matrix, 101
critical periods, 100
gene screens for novel factors, 101–102
Hebbian mechanisms, 100–101
homeostatic mechanisms, 100–101
lid suture, response to, 99–100
long-term depression (LTD) of inputs, 100–101
long-term potentiation (LTP) of inputs, 100–101
monocular deprivation (MD), 99–102
structural, 101
Odor learning
in attachment, 889–890
in aversion, 892–893
Olfaction, 321–336
encoding
odor, 326–327, 330–332
from percept to molecule, 330
spatial, 327–329
temporal, 329–330
infant odor learning and attachment, 889–890
odor space
constructing perception-based, 330–332
model from physical to perceptual space, 333
physiochemical molecular descriptor space, 332–333
to predict neural activity in olfactory system, 333–335
olfactory system
described, 322–324
olfactory bulb, 325–326, 328
olfactory cortex, 326
olfactory epithelium, 324–325, 327–328
predicting neural activity in, 333–335
Olfactory cortex
described, 326
infant odor learning and attachment, 889–890
Open loop control, 615–617
Operant conditioning, 310
Optic chiasm formation, 92
Optic flow, 318
perception of heading from, 500–502
primate cortical neuron response to, 502–503
Optic tectum, targeting and retinotopic wiring, 92
Optimal control theory, 549
duality with Bayesian inference, 614–622
algorithms for learning and online computation, 621–622
general duality, 617–619
intermediate representations, 619–621
isometric tasks, 614–615
optimality in sensory and motor processing, 615–617
in motor learning and control, 588
optimal estimation versus, 618–619
Optimal decoder, 420
Optimal encoder, 420
Optimal estimation, 525–533
Bayesian formulation, 527–529, 530–531
in the brain, 530–533
computational basis for motor synergies, 548–549
defined, 525
formulations of, 525–529
optimal control versus, 618–619
physiological implementation, 531–533
regression formulation, 525–527
Optimal lag time (OLT), 604–609
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
in conditioned fear reactions, 917, 918
in emotion regulation, 965, 966–968, 969
moral judgment and, 988
in processing of emotional information, 932
in simple binary stimulus-choice paradigm, 1081–1083
Order discrimination, in relative-learning tasks, 359
Orexin, 1140
Orientation discrimination, in discriminative learning, 133–134
Orientation scotomas, 411–413
Orientational selectivity, 309, 311–312
Origin of Species (Darwin), 50–52
Other-race effect, in face recognition, 468
Overgeneralization, 1048, 1051–1052, 1059
P
P600 potential, in semantic unification, 824–826, 845
Pain
awareness of, in infancy, 1117–1118
comparisons of species, 1138
Pain syndromes, 147
Pajek software, 1224, 1226–1227
Parahippocampal cortex
comparative anatomy of, 659, 665–666
damage to, 659–660
Paralexias, 779
Parallel distributed processing (PDP), 1047–1053
in conceptual development, 1048–1053
in conditioned fear reactions, 913–914
fundamental tenets, 1047–1048
Paralysis, transient form of, 1141
Parent training, 176
Parietal cortex
audition and, 167–168
frontoparietal attention network, 219–230
anticipatory signals, 219–223
coding locus of attention, 224–226
establishing goals, 227–229
eye movements, 226–227
feature-based selection, 226–227
functional connectivity, 219–223
physiological mechanisms for selection of visual objects, 229–230
prefrontal-cingular circuits, 228–229
reward/value signals and limbic system, 227–228
task sets, 228–229
top-down biases, 223, 251–252
topographic organization of maps, 223–226
working memory, 228–229
frontoparietal mirror neuron system in motor processing, 625–638
defined, 625
human, 625, 633–638
intention understanding, 632–633, 635–636
monkey, 625, 626–633
impact of damage on state estimation, 594
stroke in, 144
Parkinson's disease, 560–561
basal ganglia functions and, 565, 567, 568, 570–574, 577, 594
effects of striatal damage, 593–594
Parsing, 812, 813
Part-in-spacing-altered-whole effect, in face recognition, 468
Part-whole effect, in face recognition, 468
Path integration, medial temporal lobe function, 683–684
Pathological laughter and crying (PLC), 1184
Pavlovian conditioning, 310
actions in, 906–909, 914–918
avoidance conditioning, 116, 907–909
components of, 906–909
fear response, 906–919
goal-directed choice and, 1078–1079, 1083
learning tasks, 116, 118, 319
Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT), 909, 915–917
Pax6 genes, 876–877, 878, 879
People Pieces Analogies, 1011
Perception. See also Depth perception; Surface perception
basal ganglia function and, 575–577
emotion and, 925–932
automaticity, 929–931
behavioral effects on perception, 926–928
cultural factors, 931–932
current behavior goals, 932
neural circuits underlying attention, 928–929
neural processing in perception, 925–926
personality factors, 931–932
knowing versus, 1035
learning versus, 675
motor theories of, mirror neurons and, 773
neuronal basis of perceptual illusions, 1143–1145
object concepts and, 1031–1042
Perception-based odor space
constructing, 330–332
in predicting neural activity in olfactory system, 333–335
Perceptual asymmetry, in early visual processing of printed words, 791–792
Perceptual face-space, 468
Perceptual filling-in, 435–449
active interpolation theory
described, 435
early visual system, 437–439
evidence for, 439–442
computational model, 442–449
defined, 436–437
future research directions, 449
insights, 447–449
limitations of research, 449
processes in surface perception, 435–441
simulation studies, 443–447
Perceptual learning, 132–136
auditory, 132–133, 353–363
characteristics, 358–362
neural processes, 353–358
neural underpinnings, 362–363
cortical recruitment in, 132–133
neural underpinnings of, 362–363
neuronal mechanisms, 133–136
psychophysics of, 132
Perceptual masking, 348–349
Perceptual memory, executive memory versus, 708–709
Perceptual narrowing, in face recognition, 471–472
Perceptual organization principles, 212–213, 317
Perceptual theory of speech production, 773
Perceptual valence, 331–332
Perforant path (PP), 109
Performance monitoring, as cognitive control function, 76
Perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI), connectivity studies, 264
Periaqueductal gray (PAG), 878
Perineuronal nets (PNN), in ocular dominance plasticity, 101
Perinuclear cage, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14
Perirhinal cortex, comparative anatomy of, 660–665
Perisylvian neural network, 259–266
role in human right hemisphere, 263
spatial neglect as disconnection syndrome, 263–264
white matter connectivity, 260–262
Personality factors, in processing of emotional information, 931–932
Phenomenal consciousness. See also Higher order of thought (HOT) approach to consciousness
during childhood, 1117–1118
described, 1113–1114
Phenomenology, in qualia space, 1214–1215
Phenotype, discovery and changes, 59–61
Phenotypes, 876
Phobias, 927, 928
Phonemes
mirror system for, 625
in second-language learning, 842
Phonetic learning
interaction with word learning, 844
neural signatures in typically developing children, 839–841
Phonological processing, 767–774
auditory-motor integration networks in, 771
defined, 767
left posterior planum temporale (area Spt) in, 770–771
mirror neurons in, 773
morphological processing and, 779
motor theories of perception in, 773
posterior language cortex in left hemisphere, 770
speech recognition, 769–773
spoken word recognition, 768–769
superior temporal sulcus (STS) in, 769
task dependence, 767–768
visual representations and, 799
Photodiode thought experiment, 1202–1203, 1211–1212
Phylogenetic scale, 50
Physiochemical molecular descriptor space, 332–333
Piaget, Jean, 78
Pictorial cues, 483
Place cell networks, 121–123
Place fields, in long-term potentiation (LTP), 119–121
Plaid paradigm (Adelson and Movshon), 317–318
Planum temporale
in human brain specialization, 53
in phonological processing (area Spt), 770–771
connection to motor speech areas, 770–771
motor effector manipulations, 771
sensorimotor response properties, 770
speech related visual stimuli, 771
Plasticity. See also Neuroplasticity
amygdala, lack of, 892
defined, 89
dynamic activity across neural networks, 142–146
as normal state, 142
synaptic, 109–123
attractor dynamics in neural networks, 121–123
long-term depression (LTD) of cellular mechanisms, 109, 111–119, 122–123, 146–147
long-term potentiation (LTP) of cellular mechanisms, 109, 111–121, 122–123, 146–147
modifications as means for memory, 109–111
training-related, 153–161
complex learning environments, 156–158
determinants of learning and learning transfer, 158–161
impact of practice, 154–156
specificity of learning, 153–154
visual cortex, 129–137
lesions and, 131–132
neuronal activity in formation of eye-specific connections, 67–71
ocular dominance plasticity, 91, 99–102
perceptual learning and, 132–136
postnatal development, 129–131
profiles, 166–167
top-down influences, 134, 136–137
Pleasantness, perceptual, olfactory, 331–333, 336
Point of view, 1203, 1205
Populations. See Neural populations in primate cortex
Positron emission tomography (PET)
basal ganglia function and, 576
brain function and, 1067–1068
comparative, 57
in emotion regulation, 964, 970
forebrain dysfunction following severe brain injury, 1130
motor cortex activity, 142
neural processing of emotional information, 925–926
object concepts and, 1033, 1040
posterior parietal cortex (PPC) and, 601
in semantic memory processing, 1062
in semantic unification network, 831
simulation of future events, 754–756
Posner's cuing paradigm, 236, 242, 282
Postconceptual week (PCW), in stages of corticogenesis process, 29, 30–37
Postdiction, eye movements and, 518
Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
moral judgment and, 988, 993–994
reward/value signals in limbic system, 228
Posterior IT (PIT) neural tuning, 458–461, 463–464
Posterior language cortex, in speech production, 770
Posterior lateral PFC, cascade model and, 1022–1023
Posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 167
state estimation, 599–609
dynamic, 606–609
movement intention and anticipation, 599–601
neural correlates, 604–607
for online control, 601–603
sensorimotor control, 603–607
virus tracing studies, 558
Postmitotic cells, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 18–19
Postphonemic processing, 769
Postrhinal cortex, comparative anatomy of, 663, 666–667, 670
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 147, 928
Power spectrum model of masking, 345
PR-LTM (postreactivation long-term memory), 693–698, 700
PR-STM (postreactivation short-term memory), 693–698, 700
Preattentive indices (FINSTs), 192
Precision grip, mirror neural system and, 626–638
Precognition period, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29
Predictive remapping, eye movements and, 517–518
Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
in cognitive control development, 76–77, 82, 705–709, 714–719, 1019–1027
comparative neuroimaging, 57–58
development stages, 29–44
in emotion regulation, 963–969
in fluid reasoning development, 79–80
modularity of language and, 1238
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) (continued)
in relational reasoning, 1008–1015
social cognition and, 956–957
structural brain development, 73–74
virus tracing studies, 557–558
Premotor areas, 555–556
Premotor cortex
cascade model and, 1022
goal-directed actions and, 1037–1039
Premotor theory of attention, 191
Preparatory responses, 914
Preplate (PP), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11
Presubplate (PSP), neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 32
Presupplementary motor area (PreSMA), virus tracing studies, 558
Primary motor cortex. See Motor cortex (M1)
Primates. See Monkeys; Neural populations in primate cortex
Prime order of thought (POT), explanatory gap and, 1114
PRIMER, 844
Priming
attention and, 196, 197, 199
negative, 196, 197
partial spatial loss, 274–276
conceptual, 715–719
for early language acquisition, 840
neural, 715, 717
Primordial plexiform layer, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–31
Principle components analysis (PCA), 330–332
Principle of delayed estimating, 533
Principle of perceptual organization, 212–213, 317
Prisoner's dilemma game, 995
Procedural/declarative hypothesis, in morphological processing, 780–782
Processing, competence versus, 1241–1242
Programmed cell death (PCD), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 16
Proliferative zones. See also Subventricular zone (SVZ); Ventricular zone (VZ)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 34–35, 36, 42
Propositions, in syntactic processing, 805–806
Proprioception, 601, 604, 606
Proteases, in ocular dominance plasticity, 101
Protein kinase C (PKC), 116
Protein kinases, 111
Protein synthesis, in ocular dominance plasticity, 100–101
Protein-synthesis inhibitor, 698
Protomap hypothesis
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 18–19
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30–31
Psychological refractory period, for attention, 194, 195
Psychopathology
empathy and, 974, 979
future-event simulation and, 753–754
moral judgment and, 988
Psychopathy
empathy and, 974, 979
moral judgment and, 988, 993
Psychopathy Checklist, 993
Punishment, 967–968
Purdue Pegboard task, 149
Pure alexia, 794
Pure autonomic failure (PAF), empathy and, 977
Purkinje cells, 1140
Put, putamen, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31
Pylyshyn, Zenon, 1241–1245
Q
Qualia space (Q-space), 1212–1216
defined, 1212
giving shape to experience, 1212–1213
translating phenomenology into geometry, 1214–1215
viewing as shapes, 1213–1214
Quantum mechanics
consciousness and, 1141
SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device), 839
R
Radial domain, neocortical development, cross-species comparisons, 7, 9, 13, 14–15, 22, 23
Radial glia (RG)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 7, 9, 13, 14–15, 22, 23
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 33
Radial wait hypothesis, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 14–15
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 109, 129
Random-effects analysis, 742, 744, 745
Rape, 928
Rapid auditory processing, 168
Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM), 78–81, 1008–1009, 1015
Reach adaptation, in motor learning and control, 589–590
Reaction times, video games and, 157
Reactions
fear, neural basis for, 909–914
nature of, 906
in Pavlovian conditioning, 906–914
Reading ability, 175–176
Reading impairment, 166
Reading intervention, 174–176
Reading process, 789–800
dorsal visual pathway, 794–799
interfacing with verbal system, 798–799
orientation of attention, 795–796
parts of words, 797–798
pathology, 795–796, 797, 798
serial decoding, 797–798
single word selection, 796–797
pathology in, 792–798
signed language, 169–170
ventral visual pathway, 789–794
early visual processing of printed words, 791–794
interfacing with verbal system, 798–799
pathology, 792, 794
word perception as object perception, 789–792
Reafference, posterior parietal cortex (PPC) and, 600–601
Reagan, Ronald, 1260
Reappraisal, in emotion regulation, 964–966, 969
Receiver operating characteristics (ROC), 680–683
Receptive fields (RF)
population properties, 422–423
in primary visual cortex, 409–411
Recipient, in relational reasoning, 1008
Recollection, medial temporal lobe function, 680–683
Reconsolidation, 656, 691–700
alternative interpretations, 696–698
cognitive implications, 699–700
consolidation theory, 692–693
constraining, 695–696
constraints on, 695–696
reviving, 693–695
systems, 698–699
Red/green color vision deficiency, 389–390
Reed, Randy, 324
Reflexes, nature of, 905
Regional selectivity, in Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), 792–794
Regionalization, in formation of visual pathway, 91–92
Relational complexity, 1008–1010, 1013–1014
Relational integration, 1006–1007, 1012–1013
Relational reasoning, 1005–1015
component processes, 1006–1008
interference control, 1006–1007, 1013–1014
LISA model, 1007–1008, 1011, 1013, 1015
relational integration, 1006–1007, 1012–1013
prefrontal cortex (PFC) in, 1008–1015
aging process, 1010–1011
neuroimaging evidence, 1011–1015
neuropsychological evidence, 1008–1011
relational complexity, 1008–1010, 1013–1014
Relative entropy, 1204
Repetition suppression (RS) phenomenon, 647–648, 715–719
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
morphological processing, 782–785
motor cortex activity, 142–146, 148–149
Representation. See also Conceptual representation
levels of, in learning and learning transfer, 159
in phonological processing, 767–768
in simple binary stimulus-choice paradigm, 1081
syntactic processing, 805–807
visual, consciousness and, 1112, 1113
Reproducible localization, in Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), 792
Repulsive bias, 531
Repulsive guidance molecule (RGM), 94
Response inhibition. See also Long-term depression (LTD)
as cognitive control function, 76–77, 78
conscious, 1194–1195
movement release and, 568–573, 579
nature of, 76–77, 78
Response selection
as cognitive control function, 76–77, 78
nature of, 76–77, 78
Response variability of population, 425–427
additive versus multiplicative noise, 425
spatial correlation, 425–426
temporal correlation, 425–427
Reticular activating system, 1140
Retinal development, formation of eye-specific inputs, 67–71
Retinal ganglion cell (RGC)
projections to dorsal lateral geniculate (dLGN), 67–71
receptive fields in visual cortex, 410–411
in rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 97
statistical connectivity theory, 411–415
targeting and retinotopic wiring, 92–94
Retinal Motion condition, 495
Retinal processing. See also Color vision
lesion studies, 131–132
neurodegenerative diseases, 131–132
retinal waves in, 68, 70–71
visual object recognition, 455
Retinitis pigmentosa, 389
Retinotopic processing, in early visual processing of printed words, 791–794
Retinotopic projections/maps, 91–102
activity-dependent refinement of, 98–99
of dorsal attention network, 223–226
eye movements and, 520–521
formation of visual pathway in early development, 91–95
eye-specific domains, 94
new maps, 94–95
other feature maps, 94–95
regionalization, 91–92
retinotopic wiring, 92–94
targeting, 92–94
ocular dominance plasticity, 99–102
rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 95–98
Retinotopy, surface perception and, 437–438, 442
Retrieval. See also Memory
emotional modulation during, 731–733
episodic, individual differences and, 743–747
neural basis of, 743
Retrograde alteration, of synaptic plasticity, 114, 116
Retrograde amnesia, 684–685
Retronasal olfaction, 324
Retroviral gene transfer method, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9, 14–15
Reverse hierarchy theory (Hochstein and Ahissar), 194
Rewards
in decision making, 1094–1095
immediate and remote relevance of, 1026
in learning process, 161, 588, 592–593
in motor learning and control, 588, 592–593
reward/salience signals in basal ganglia, 561, 571–572, 575
reward/value signals in limbic system, 227–228
in valuation process, 1087
Rhesus monkey. See Monkeys
Right visual field (RVF)
in early visual processing of printed words, 791–793
in semantic processing, 820
Rod monochromacy, 390–392
Rodents
auditory cortex, rewiring vision into, 95–98
basal ganglia function and, 575–577
cross-species comparisons of mammalian cortical development, 7–23, 1138–1139
infant, attachment learning, 890, 895
learning rewarding nature of sensory states, 593
memory, analysis of parahippocampal region, 662, 665, 666–671
model-animal versus comparative approach and, 52–53
olfactory cortex, 316, 329–330
synaptic plasticity, 114–119, 122–123
visual cortex
formation of eye-specific inputs, 68, 70
plasticity, 100–101
visual pathway formation, 91–95
Rosch, Eleanor, 1031
Rostrolateral PFC (RLPFC), development of, 74, 79, 80–81, 707–709
Rule/task-set representation, as cognitive control function, 76
Rumelhart model, 1048–1051, 1055, 1059
Russell, Bertrand, 1116
Ryk receptor expression, 94
S
S cone mosaic
Bayesian statistics and, 401–404
described, 395
functional consequences of, 384–386
structural organization of, 384
Saccades. See Eye movements, saccades
Salience assignment, basal ganglia function and, 573–575
Sampling methods, 622
Scene parameters, in color vision, 396
Schaffer collateral pathway, 110, 111
Scharff, Constance, 879
Schizophrenia, 147
basal ganglia function and, 571
visual awareness and, 1156
Second-language learning, 169, 842, 848–849
Segment III of von Monakow, 36
Selection negativities, 238–240
Selection positivities, 238–240
Selective attention. See also Attentional processing, in selective attention
auditory, 171–174
in auditory informational masking, 345–348
as cognitive control function, 76
degree of competition, 186
event-related potential (ERP), 186
feature-based selection, 197–198
in analysis of visual attention, 238–240
eye movements in, 226–227
feature integration theory, 197–198, 208–210, 226–227, 276–277
nature of, 76, 185
neuroimaging studies
selection among multiple competing objects, 210–214
units of selection, 206–210
through neuronal synchronization, 289–299
attentional processing, 293–298
attentional selection in neuronal communication structure, 290–292
interneuron networks and attentional modulation, 292–293
selective synchronization, 292
object selection
attributes, 191–192
among multiple competing objects, 210–214
nature of object-based attention, 208–209
physiological mechanisms, 229–230
spatiotemporal analysis, 240–246
plasticity and, 170–171
selectivity of visual neurons, 284–285
spatial selection, 191–192, 206–208
focus of attention, 235–237
locus of attention in visual system, 237–238
spatiotemporal analysis, 235–238
visual search, 238
visual. See Visual attention
Selective Tuning Model, 236
Self-awareness
self-knowing, 752
in social cognition, 954–955
Self-consciousness, 1141–1142
Self-projection, 757–758
Self-regulation, in social cognition, 956–957
Semantic aphasia, 1063–1064
Semantic cognition, 1047–1064
neural basis of, 1061–1064
object concepts and, 1040–1041
parallel distributed processing (PDP) and, 1047–1053
modeling semantic dementia, 1054–1057, 1059
overgeneralization, 1048, 1051–1052, 1059
sensitivity to coherent correlation, 1052–1053
Rumelhart model, 1048–1051, 1055, 1059
in semantic aphasia, 1063–1064
in semantic dementia, 1008, 1047, 1053–1061
Semantic dementia, 1008, 1047, 1053–1061
characteristics of, 1054
development versus disintegration and, 1057–1059
knowledge of both objects and words, 1060–1061
modeling, 1054–1057
nonsemantic deficits in, 1059–1060
role of anterior temporal lobes (ATL) in semantic memory, 1062–1063
Semantic facilitation index (SFI), 1010
Semantic memory
loss of, 79
object concepts and, 1033, 1035
role of anterior temporal lobes (ATL) in, 1062–1063
Semantic processing, 169, 170
in action semantics, 648–650
central feature, 875
challenge of, 879–880
interactions between control and memory, 713–714
in relational reasoning, 1007–1008
semantic unification, 819–833, 1062–1063
beyond sentence level, 828–832
functional characteristics, 820–827
integration versus unification, 832
MUC (memory, unification, control) framework, 819
multimodal nature, 828
Sensitive periods. See Critical (sensitive) periods
Sensitivity to spacing changes, 468
Sensorimotor control, 603–607, 770, 1021
Sensory processing. See also Auditory processing; Multisensory integration; Olfaction; Visual processing
attention and strength of response, 283–284
emotional impact on, 727–728
motor processing compared with, 613–622
algorithms for learning and online computation, 621–622
Bayesian inference, 614–622
inference versus control, 613–614
intermediate representations, 619–621
optimal control, 614–619
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 42
object concepts, 1034–1035
optimality in, 615–617
Sensory substitution
audition for vision, 167–169, 321
in blindness, 321
Sentence processing
in early language acquisition, 844–845
interpretation, 812, 813
semantic unification beyond sentence level, 828–832
Sentience, 1138–1139
Sequencing of candidate genes, nature of, 856
Sequential finger movement task, 149
Serial behavior, hierarchical processing, 641–642
Serial decoding
in conditioned fear reactions, 911–913, 914
in reading process, 797
Serial reaction time (SRT), basal ganglia function and, 576, 577
Serotonin, 1140
Serotonin transporter (5-HTTI), in imaging genetics studies, 947
Short-term memory (STM). See Working memory
Sign rule of connectivity, 412
Signal detection theory, 134, 503–505
recognition memory, 680–683
Signal-to-noise ratio, 285–286, 310, 345, 363
Signaling centers, in formation of visual pathway, 91–92
Signed language, 169–170
Silent meaning, in semantic unification framework, 824
Simple binary stimulus choice, 1076–1077, 1079–1083
Simulation studies
future event simulation, 752–754, 757–759
in integrated information theory (IIT), 1207–1209
of perceptual filling-in, 443–447
Simulation theory, 1185
Single word selection, in reading process, 796–797
Size of cerebral cortex, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 15–17
Skin conductance response (SCR), autonomic response to nonconscious emotion, 1186–1187
Skinner, B. F., 837
Skinner box, 1075, 1077
Sleep
consciousness during, 1139, 1141, 1209
in memory consolidation, 730–731
Slow activity transients (SAT), 35
Smell. See Olfaction
SMI-32 (NPNF), 55, 56, 57
Smid, John Maynard, 876
Smith, G. Elliot, 315–316
SOAR, 159
Social cognition, 953–959, 1258. See also Empathy
components of, 954–958
detection of threat, 957–958
mentalizing, 954, 955–956
self-awareness, 954–955
self-regulation, 956–957
emotion and, 1184–1185. See also Emotion
nature of, 953–954
“special” nature of social cognition, 958
Socioeconomic factors
intervention style and, 176
IQ and, 80, 171
Sociopathy, moral judgment and, 988
Somatic marker hypothesis, 1098
Somatic markers, 977
Somatosensory cortex
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35
in perceptual learning, 132–133
Somatostatin, 35
Source amnesia, 1118
Space-time tuning function (STTF), 604–607
Spatial attention
comparison of effects across visual system, 208, 1156–1157
deficits in
complete loss, 270–273
loss of perceptual space, 269–273
partial loss, 273–277
types of deficits, 269–270
implicit spatial maps, 272–273
locus of spatial selection, 237–238
orientation in reading process, 795–796
profile of spatial focus of attention, 235–237
role of spatial selection in visual search, 238
spatial neglect versus, 259, 263–264
spatial selection and
behavioral coherence, 191–192
spatiotemporal analysis, 235–238
units of selection, 206–208
in spatiotemporal analysis of visual attention, 235–238
Spatial correlations, in population response, 425–426
Spatial dyslexia, 798
Spatial encoding, in odor discrimination, 327–329
Spatial neglect, 259, 263–264, 265
Spatial orientation
cortical areas in, 259
perisylvian neural network, 259–266
role in human right hemisphere, 263
spatial neglect as disconnection syndrome, 263–264
white matter connectivity, 260–262
Spatial tasks, auditory learning in, 359–362
Spatiotopic maps, 520–521
Species-typical behaviors, 906
Specific language impairment (SLI), 168, 171, 172, 174, 859–860, 863, 864
Specificity
of consciousness, 1209–1212
of input in memory formation, 113, 114
of learning, 153–156
Speech arrest, 260
Speech production
mechanisms underlying, 878
motor-speech systems in, 771–773
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 41
perceptual theory of, 773
posterior language cortex in, 770
Speech recognition
informational masking and, 348–351
motor theory of speech perception, 883
phonological processing
bilateral/asymmetric nature of, 769–770
bilateral organization, 768–769
Speech segmentation, 169
Speech sound disorder (SSD), 860, 863, 864
Spindle cells, in human brain specialization, 54–55
Spinogenesis
first phase, 37
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 37, 41, 42
Spinoza, Baruch, 1183
Split-brain procedures
modular hypothesis and, 1247–1249
word recognition and, 768
Spors, Hartwig, 329
Sprague effect, 1070–1071
Spreading activation
anatomical basis for, 437–438
defined, 436
early visual system, 437–438
SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device), 839
Stanford Binet IQ, 154–155
Starburst amacrine cells, 69
State-dependent learning, 137
State estimation
in motor learning and control, 588, 594
posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 594, 599–609
dynamic, 606–609
movement intention and anticipation, 599–601
neural correlates, 604–607
for online control, 601–603
sensorimotor control, 603–607
Steady-state visual-evoked potential (SSVEP), 236, 239, 240
Sternberg, Robert J., 78
Stimulus-independent thoughts (SITs), 1070
Stimulus-response (S-R) learning
basal ganglia function and, 575–577
fear in, 906–909
habits and, 906
Stimulus-stimulus (S-S), 906–909
STRAIGHT algorithm, in auditory object analysis, 370
Streaming, in auditory object analysis, 370–371
Stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP), 893
Striatum
effects of damage, 593–594
overview, 1094–1095
valuation in decision making, 1097
Strictly congruent, 628–629
Striosomal pathway, in basal ganglia function, 569
Stroke
aphasia following, 259–260, 810
Balint's syndrome following, 198
forebrain dysfunction following severe brain injury, 1129
impact of, 144
language processing after, 1238
neurodegenerative disease resulting from, 132
recovery of hand motor function, 148–149
white matter structural changes following, 1128
Strong-loops hypothesis (Crick and Koch), 1170
Stroop task, 156, 185, 192–193, 199, 707, 928, 931, 963, 969, 1024, 1025
Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), of age-related change in cortical thickness, 73–74
Structural neuroimaging, comparative, 55–58
Structural organization of brain, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29–34, 36, 37, 39, 41
Subjective reports, in measuring visual awareness, 1151
Subpial granular layer (SG), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11, 22
Subplate in formation (SPF), neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31–34
Subplate intermediate zone (SP/IZ), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 11
Subplate zone (SP)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 10, 11, 13, 18, 21
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35–36, 37, 38, 39–40, 43
Subplate zone (SZ), neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30, 31, 33, 35
Subsidiarity, 1021
Substantia nigra (SN)
basal ganglia function, 569–571
virus tracing studies, 553–558, 567–568
Subthalamic nucleus (STN), basal ganglia function, 569–571
Subtraction paradigm, 1257
Subventricular zone (SVZ)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9, 11, 14, 20, 21, 22
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 32–33, 34–35, 36
Superior frontal gyrus (SFG), mirror neural system and, 634
Superior frontal sulcus (SFS), in visuospatial working memory, 74
Superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), dense perisylvian white matter connectivity, 260–264
Superior/middle temporal gyrus (STG/MTG)
dense perisylvian white matter connectivity, 260, 263
grammar processing and, 1236–1237
in phonological processing
speech production, 770
spoken word recognition, 768–769
in semantic unification network, 828–832
Superior occipitofrontal fasciculus (SOF), dense perisylvian white matter connectivity, 261, 264
Superior temporal sulcus (STS)
grammar processing and, 1236–1237
moral judgment and, 988, 991
object concepts and, 1034–1040
in phonological processing
critical role, 769
spoken word recognition, 768–769
working memory in auditory-motor integration networks, 769
in semantic unification network, 828
Supplementary motor area (SMA), 142, 143, 555–556
action understanding, 647
anatomical versus representational hierarchy, 643–644
in decision making, 1025–1026
goal representation in bimanual coordination, 646
spontaneous motor initiation, 1191
Surface perception, 435–449
active interpolation theory
described, 435
evidence for, 439–442
features of early visual system, 437–439
adaptation, defined, 436–437
contour in, 133–134, 135, 136
experimental paradigms for, 436
filling-in research
assumptions and insights, 447–449
computational model for, 442–447
definition of perceptual filling-in, 436–437
future directions, 449
limitations, 449
simulation studies, 443–447
problem of, 435–437
simulation studies, 443–447
texture in, 135, 153, 443–447
model for texture filling-in, 442–447
theoretical background, 435–437
Surface-related spreading activation, 438
Surface segmentation, 131
Surprise, facial expression and amygdala response, 936–939
Syllable discrimination, in phonological processing, 768
Sylvian fissure, 186, 263–264
Symbolic encoding theory, 436
Symmetry of perception, cortical, 316–318
Synaptic connections
cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 7, 19–20, 22
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35
plasticity of. See Synaptic plasticity
Synaptic plasticity, 109–123
attractor dynamics in neural networks, 121–123
complementary mechanisms in control of, 146–147
long-term depression (LTD) of cellular mechanisms, 109–123
long-term potentiation (LTP) of cellular mechanisms, 109–123
modifications as means for memory, 109–111
Synaptic tagging, 114
Synaptogenesis
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 22
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 35, 37, 40–41, 42
Synchronization of neurons. See Selective attention, through neuronal synchronization
Synergies. See Muscle synergies
Syntactic processing, 169
deficits in, 807–814
lesion studies, 807–813
mediating role of syntax, 880
neuroimaging studies, 810–813, 845
syntactic representations and processing, 805–807, 845
syntactic structures, 805–806
syntax-semantics framework, 824–827
System identification, in motor learning and control, 588
T
Tabula rasa hypothesis, in cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 18
Task dependence, in phonological processing, 767–768
Task difficulty, in learning and learning transfer, 159–160
Task sets, working memory and, 228–229
Task-specific deactivations, 1068
Task-switching, as cognitive control function, 76
Telencephalic pallium, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 30
Telencephalon, cross-species comparisons of neocortical development, 8–9, 10
Temporal decoding, of neural population responses, 428–429
Temporal difference model, in valuation process, 1087–1088
Temporal encoding
in odor discrimination, 329–330
in perceptual learning, 135–136
Temporal encoding function (TEF), 604–605
Temporal expectancies, selective neuronal synchronization and, 296–297
Temporal tasks, auditory learning in, 358–359
relative-timing tasks, 359, 360
temporal-interval discrimination, 358–359
Temporal word form area, 1153
Temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
moral judgment and, 988–989, 991, 993–994
perisylvian network for spatial orienting, 259–260
social cognition and, 955
Tetris (video game), 159
Texture determination, 135, 153
computational model for texture filling-in, 442–447
simulation studies in, 443–447
Thalamic neurons
central thalamic deep-brain stimulation, 1131–1134
in forebrain dysfunction following severe brain injury, 1128–1130
Thalamic radiation (TR), cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 13
Thalamocortical fibers, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 32–33, 37–39, 43
Thalamus
in cognitive function, 565, 567
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 32, 35–36
receptive fields in primary visual cortex, 409–411
transfer of information to auditory cortex, 95
transfer of information to visual cortex, 91, 92
THBS4 (thrombospondin 4), 60
Theories of competence, 1241
Theories of processing, 1241
Theory of mind (TOM), 41, 758, 880, 954, 1042
Thorndike, E. L., 739
Thought experiments, 1115, 1202–1203, 1211–1212
Threat detection, 957–958
Three-dimensional structural coding hypothesis, 460–463
Three-dimensional surface orientation, 488–489
Tics, 572
Time
in perceptual learning, 135–136
synaptic plasticity and, 122–123
Time-dependent behavioral impairment, 694–695
Tinnitus, 147
Todorov, E., 549
Token Test, 809
Tonically active neurons (TANs), basal ganglia function and, 574–575
Top-down influences. See also Cognitive (executive) control
in consciousness, 1195–1197
in learning process, 134, 136–137
in selective attention, 186–187, 211–212, 213–214, 219, 220
causality of biases, 223, 224, 230
physiological mechanisms for, 229–230
relation to bottom-up influences, 213–214
selective neuronal synchronization, 289–299
Topic maps, 1230–1233
Topographic projections/maps
of dorsal attention network, 223–226
inherited color vision deficiencies, 388–392
retinotopic, 91–102, 223–226
Tourette syndrome, 82
basal ganglia function and, 568, 571, 572
TRACE, 768
Trace deletion hypothesis, 808
Training
attention training for children, 173–175, 176
auditory
characteristics of auditory processing in perceptual-learning patterns, 358–362
generalizations, 355–357, 360
neural processes related to auditory tasks, 353–358
inhibitory avoidance, 116
parent, 176
plasticity related to, 153–161
complex learning environments, 156–158
determinants of learning and learning transfer, 158–161
impact of practice, 154–156
specificity of learning, 153–154
training-related plasticity, 153–161
complex learning environments, 156–158
determinants of learning and learning transfer, 158–161
impact of practice, 154–156
specificity of learning, 153–154
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), 149
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
of emotion regulation, 967, 970
empathy and, 975, 977, 982
functional role of perisylvian network, 263
goal representation and, 644–645
in methodology of cognitive neuroscience, 1256, 1259
posterior parietal cortex (PPC) function, 601, 603
role of attention in feature binding, 198
in semantic memory processing, 1062
spontaneous motor initiation, 1193–1194
vision pathologies, 1158–1159
Transient circuitry, neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 29, 32, 34, 38
Transient embryonic zones, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9–14
Transient form of paralysis, 1141
Tritanopia, 388–389
Tritiated thymidine, as marker for DNA synthesis, 8
Trolley problem, 991, 994
Troxler fading paradigm, 439, 440–441
Tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (TPH2), in imaging genetics studies, 948
Tulving, Endel, 655, 743, 752
Twin studies
genetic basis of emotional variability, 946
language impairment, 856, 863
Typically developing (TD) children, 171, 172, 174
U
Ultimatum Game (UG), 966–967, 994
Uncertainty
interactions between control and memory, 713–714
reduced, 715–719
Unconditioned stimulus (US), in decision making, 1095–1096
Unconscious vision, 1152–1155
Unification, in semantic unification framework, 819. See also Semantic processing, semantic unification
Unit recording experiments, 305–306
Useful Field of View Task, 157–158
Utilitarian judgment, moral judgment and, 991–992
V
Variance maps, 744, 745
Vegetative state (VS), 1124
Ventral frontoparietal attention network. See Frontoparietal attention network, ventral
Ventral intraparietal area (VIP), optic flow in primates and, 502–503
Ventral premotor area (PMv), 555–556
Ventral visual pathway, 789–794, 798–799
reading process and
interfacing with verbal system, 798–799
pathology, 792, 794
visual awareness and, 1159–1160
Ventricular zone (VZ)
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 33, 34–35, 36
Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC)
development of, 74, 79, 81, 705, 706, 707, 709–714, 714
in emotion regulation, 963
memory and, 705, 706, 707, 709–720, 714, 932
in processing of emotional information, 932
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), moral judgment and, 987–990, 992, 994
Vernier acuity tasks, 159
Vernier discrimination, 136–137
Vestibular signals
perception of heading from, 500–502
primate cortical neuron response to, 502–503
Video games
aggressive behavior and, 155
in complex learning environments, 157–158
dopamine release and, 161
generalized learning and, 160
mental rotation and, 157, 159
Violence, moral judgment and, 991
Virtual brain damage, 1005
Virus tracing studies, 554–561, 567–568
Visual analogy problems, 80
Visual attention. See also Visual awareness
attentional control processes, 251–257
brain networks for conflict processing, 253–255
conflict and, 252–253
consciousness versus, 199–200, 1141–1143
deficits in, 269–277
complete, 270–273
loss of perceptual space, 269–270
partial, 273–277
effect on visual neurons, 281–286
attentional bottleneck, 282–283
attentional modulation of neuronal responses, 285–286
selectivity of visual neurons, 284–285
strength of sensory responses, 283–284
feedback in, 1165–1175
anatomical observations, 1165–1166
binocular rivalry role in, 1170–1176
physiological observations, 1166–1168
role of feedback in attention, 1168–1170
visual masking role, 1170–1176
flash suppression, 1142, 1144, 1145, 1154
frontoparietal attention network and, 219–230
anticipatory signals, 219–223
coding locus of attention, 224–226
eye movements and feature-based selection, 226–227
functional connectivity, 219–223
prefrontal-cingular circuits, 228–229
reward/value signals and limbic system, 227–228
task sets, 228–229
top-down biases, 223
topographic organization of maps, 223–224
working memory, 228–229
neural processing of emotional information, 925–926
in reading process
parts of words, 797–798
pathology, 797
serial decoding, 797–798
selective, 157–158, 205–214. See also Selective attention
Visual awareness, 1151–1161
brain activity and, 1152
characterizing unconscious homunculus, 1152–1154
empirical ad theoretical integration, 1159–1160
feedback in, 1165–1175
anatomical observations, 1165–1166
binocular rivalry role in, 1170–1176
physiological observations, 1166–1168
role of feedback in attention, 1168–1170
visual masking role, 1170–1176
impact of, 1155–1158
measuring, 1151–1152
pathology, 1158–1159
unconscious vision and multivariate pattern analysis, 1154–1155
Visual cortex. See also Visual neurons; Visual processing
anatomy of feedback in, 1165–1166
attention and. See also Visual awareness
spatial attention, 206–208
comparative neuroimaging, 57–58
consciousness and
biological theory, 1112–1113
visual awareness, 1155–1158
cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 10, 19–20, 55, 57–58
feedback in, physiology, 1167–1168
formation of eye-specific connections, 67–71
binocular vision, 68, 70, 99–102, 130–131
inputs to dLGN, 68–70, 94
ocular dominance columns, 67–68
role of retinal waves, 68, 70–71
grandmother cells, 309–319
correlation, 316–318
cortical function, 314–316
defined, 310
history, 309–314
invariance, 316–318
symmetry, 316–318
hierarchical function, 314–316
impact of visual deprivation on auditory development, 167–169
object recognition, 455–465
discriminative learning, 133–134
network processing of boundary fragments, 463–464
object classification, 159
retinal signals, 455
three-dimensional surface fragments, 460–463
two-dimensional object boundaries, 455–460
in perceptual learning, 132
plasticity, 129–137, 166–167
lesions and, 131–132
neuronal activity in formation of eye-specific connections, 67–71
ocular dominance plasticity, 91, 99–102
perceptual learning and, 132–136
postnatal development, 129–131
top-down influences, 134, 136–137
statistical connectivity theory, 411–415
cortical maps and, 413–414
described, 411–413
testing, 414–415
subvoxel specialization of, 448
visual abilities and video games, 157
visual pathway, 91–102
activity-dependent refinement of visual maps, 98–99
early development, 91–95
ocular dominance plasticity, 99–102
retinotopic projections/maps, 91–102
rewiring vision into auditory pathway, 95–98, 131, 166–167
in word reading, 789–800
wiring of functional maps, 409–411
wiring of receptive fields, 409–411
Visual extinction, 1159
Visual information, 321
Visual masking, 1170–1176
Visual neglect, 1159
Visual neurons. See also Visual awareness; Visual cortex; Visual processing
effect of visual attention on, 281–286. See also Visual awareness
attentional bottleneck, 282–283
attentional modulation of neuronal responses, 285–286
Visual neurons. (continued)
selectivity of visual neurons, 284–285
strength of sensory responses, 283–284
timing of neural activity, 1155
selective synchronization of, 289–299
attention selection in neuronal communication structure, 290–292
selective attention through selective synchronization, 292
selective inter-areal synchronization, 298–299
selective modulation of synchronization, 293–298
synchronization in interneuron networks, 292–293
Visual processing. See also Color vision; Surface perception
learning versus perception, 675
memory impairment and, 675–678
for perceiving objects, 1032–1042
Visual representations. See also Object recognition
phonological impact on, 799
word perception as object perception, 789–792
Visual stimuli, speech-related, 771
Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), 792–795, 798, 799, 800
Visuomotor coordination task, 149
Visuospatial working memory, development of, 74–75
Vocabulary development
early visual processing of printed words, 791–794
neural signatures of word learning, 842–843
spoken word recognition, 768–769
Vocal learning. See also Speech production; Speech recognition
mechanisms underlying, 878
Volition. See Consciousness, volition and function of
Volleyball, complex learning environments, 156–157
Voltage-gated (N-type) receptors/channels, cross-species comparisons of cortical development, 15
Voltage-sensitive dye imaging (VSDI), visual cortex, 419–423, 425–432
Voluntary actions. See Consciousness
Voluntary motor control. See Motor processing
Von Economo neurons, in human brain specialization, 54–55
Voronoi analysis, 388–389
VWFA (Visual Word Form Area), 792–795, 798, 799, 800
Vygotsky, Lev, 161
W
Wada procedures, word recognition and, 768
Wallis, Terry, 1127–1128
Water polo, complex learning environments, 156–157
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III), 156
Wernicke, Carl, 1235
Wernicke-Geschwind model, 741
Wernicke's area
comparative neuroimaging, 57
connectivity studies, 261
in human brain specialization, 53, 54
spoken word recognition and, 768
Wernicke's language model, 773
Western Aphasia Battery, 809
White matter (WM). See also Gray matter
in cognitive control development, 76
comparative neuroimaging, 55–58
neuronal circuitry of frontal lobe, 31, 37
perisylvian white matter connectivity, 260–262
and plasticity of human neurocognition, 165
structural changes following brain injury, 1127–1128
Whitening, 427, 428
Wiesel, Torsten, 309, 311–312, 314, 409
Williams syndrome, 166
Wilson, Eric, 961
Win-shift behavior, 575
Word reading. See Reading process
Working memory
auditory-motor integration networks in, 771
consolidation theory and, 692–695
in decision making, 1021
defined, 678
development of, 74–76, 82
anatomical perspectives, 566
manipulation of information in, 75–76
nonspatial working memory, 75
visuospatial working memory, 74–75
lesion studies of medial temporal lobe function, 678–679
long-term memory versus, 683
nature of, 73
path integration and, 683–684
in visual selection process, neuroimaging studies of, 228–229
World knowledge, in semantic unification framework, 822
Writing, striatal damage and, 593–594
X
X-linked recessive traits, 388–389, 390
Y
Yerkes-Dodson law, 161
Z
Zombie behaviors, 1145–1146, 1155
Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky), 161
| 
